List of multiple discoveries

Historians and sociologists have remarked the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other.[1] "Sometimes," writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before."[2]

Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, described by A. Rupert Hall;[3] the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to such famous historic instances. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science.[4]

Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together.[5]

A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus.[6] However, discoveries and inventions are inextricably related, in that discoveries lead to inventions, and inventions facilitate discoveries; and since the same phenomenon of multiplicity occurs in relation to both discoveries and inventions, this article lists both multiple discoveries and multiple inventions.

3rd century BCE

13th century CE

14th century

16th century

17th century

18th century

19th century

20th century

21st century

Quotations

"When the time is ripe for certain things, these things appear in different places in the manner of violets coming to light in early spring."

Farkas Bolyai to his son János Bolyai, urging him to claim the invention of non-Euclidean geometry without delay,
quoted in Ming Li and Paul Vitanyi, An introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, 1st ed., 1993, p. 83.

"[Y]ou do not [make a discovery] until a background knowledge is built up to a place where it's almost impossible not to see the new thing, and it often happens that the new step is done contemporaneously in two different places in the world, independently."

a physicist Nobel laureate interviewed by Harriet Zuckerman, in Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States, 1977, p. 204.

"[A] man can no more be completely original [...] than a tree can grow out of air."

George Bernard Shaw, preface to Major Barbara (1905).

I never had an idea in my life. My so-called inventions already existed in the environment – I took them out. I've created nothing. Nobody does. There's no such thing as an idea being brain-born; everything comes from the outside.

See also

Notes

  1. Priyamvada Natarajan notes that, while Le Verrier and Adams "shared credit for the discovery [of Neptune] until fairly recently... historians of science [have] revealed that while Adams did perform some interesting calculations, his were not as precise or as accurate as Le Verrier's, and, moreover, he had not published his work, while Le Verrier had shared his predictions." Le Verrier "presented the calculated position of the[e] unseen planet [Neptune] to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris on August 31, 1846, barely two days before Adams mailed his own solution to the astronomer royal, George Airy, at the Greenwich Observatory so that his calculations could be checked. Neither Adams nor Le Verrier knew that the other had been researching Uranus's orbit." Natarajan also notes that, "Though Neptune wasn't properly identified until 1846, it had been observed much earlier.": by Galileo Galilei (1612, 1613); by Michel Lalande (8 and 10 May 1795), nephew and pupil of French astronomer Joseph-Jérôme Lalande; by Scottish astronomer John Lambert, while working at the Munich Observatory in 1845 and 1846; and by James Challis (4 and 12 August 1846).[38]

References

  1. Merton, Robert K. (December 1963). "Resistance to the Systematic Study of Multiple Discoveries in Science". European Journal of Sociology. 4 (2): 237–282. doi:10.1017/S0003975600000801. JSTOR 23998345. S2CID 145650007. Reprinted in: Robert K. Merton (15 September 1996). On Social Structure and Science. University of Chicago Press. pp. 305–. ISBN 978-0-226-52070-4.
  2. Robert K. Merton (1973). The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. University of Chicago Press. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-226-52092-6.
  3. A. Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1980.
  4. Robert K. Merton, "Singletons and Multiples in Scientific Discovery: a Chapter in the Sociology of Science", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 105: 470–86, 1961. Reprinted in Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1973, pp. 343–70.
  5. Robert K. Merton, On Social Structure and Science, p. 307.
  6. Bolesław Prus, O odkryciach i wynalazkach (On Discoveries and Inventions): A Public Lecture Delivered on 23 March 1873 by Aleksander Głowacki [Bolesław Prus], Passed by the [Russian] Censor (Warsaw, 21 April 1873), Warsaw, Printed by F. Krokoszyńska, 1873, p. 12.
  7. Owen Gingerich, "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol. 16, no. 1 (February 1985), pp. 37–42.
  8. Dava Sobel, A More Perfect Heaven: How Copernicus Revolutionized the Cosmos, New York, Walker & Company, 2011, ISBN 978-0-8027-1793-1, pp. 18–19, 179–82.
  9. "Copernicus seems to have drawn up some notes [on the displacement of good coin from circulation by debased coin] while he was at Olsztyn in 1519. He made them the basis of a report on the matter, written in German, which he presented to the Prussian Diet held in 1522 at Grudziądz... He later drew up a revised and enlarged version of his little treatise, this time in Latin, and setting forth a general theory of money, for presentation to the Diet of 1528." Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, 1951, p. 91.
  10. Αριστοφάνης. "Βάτραχοι". Βικιθήκη. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  11. Cappi, Alberto (1994). "Edgar Allan Poe's Physical Cosmology". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 35: 177–192. Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35..177C.
  12. Marilynne Robinson, "On Edgar Allan Poe", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 2 (5 February 2015), pp. 4, 6.
  13. Romm, James (February 3, 1994), "A New Forerunner for Continental Drift", Nature, 367 (6462): 407–408, Bibcode:1994Natur.367..407R, doi:10.1038/367407a0, S2CID 4281585.
  14. Schmeling, Harro (2004). "Geodynamik" (PDF) (in German). University of Frankfurt.
  15. Wallace, Alfred Russel (1889), "12", Darwinism …, Macmillan, p. 341
  16. Lyell, Charles (1872), Principles of Geology … (11 ed.), John Murray, p. 258
  17. Coxworthy, Franklin (1924). Electrical Condition; Or, How and where Our Earth was Created. J.S. Phillips. Retrieved December 6, 2014.
  18. Pickering, W.H (1907), "The Place of Origin of the Moon – The Volcani Problems", Popular Astronomy, 15: 274–287, Bibcode:1907PA.....15..274P,
  19. Frank Bursley Taylor (June 3, 1910) "Bearing of the Tertiary mountain belt on the origin of the earth’s plan", Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 21 : 179–226.
  20. Wegener, Alfred (6 January 1912), "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage" (PDF), Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2011.
  21. Eduard Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth), vol. 1 (Leipzig, (Germany): G. Freytag, 1885), page 768. From p. 768: "Wir nennen es Gondwána-Land, nach der gemeinsamen alten Gondwána-Flora, … " (We name it Gondwána-Land, after the common ancient flora of Gondwána … )
  22. Edward Suess (March 1893) "Are ocean depths permanent?", Natural Science: A Monthly Review of Scientific Progress (London), 2 : 180- 187. From page 183: "This ocean we designate by the name "Tethys", after the sister and consort of Oceanus. The latest successor of the Tethyan Sea is the present Mediterranean."
  23. Perry, John (1895) "On the age of the earth", Nature, 51 : 224–227, 341–342, 582–585.
  24. Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality, Vintage Books, 2005, p. 103.
  25. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 17.
  26. Vladimir D. Shiltsev, "Nov. 19, 1771: Birth of Mikhail Lomonosov, Russia's first modern scientist", APS [American Physical Society] News, November 2011 (vol. 20, no. 10) .
  27. Anirudh, "10 Major Contributions of Antoine Lavoisier", 17 October 2017 .
  28. "MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS, ROSICRUCIAN, and FATHER OF STUDIES OF OXYGEN" (PDF).
  29. Alan Ellis, "Black Holes  Part 1  History", Astronomical Society of Edinburgh, Journal 39, 1999 Archived 2017-10-06 at the Wayback Machine. A description of Michell's theory of black holes.
  30. Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, Bantam, 1996, pp. 43–45.
  31. "Hong's essential insight is the same as Malthus's." Wm Theodore de Bary, Sources of East Asian Tradition, vol. 2: The Modern Period, New York, Columbia University Press, 2008, p. 85.
  32. Gauss, Carl Friedrich, "Nachlass: Theoria interpolationis methodo nova tractata", Werke, Band 3, Göttingen, Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 1866, pp. 265–327.
  33. Heideman, M. T., D. H. Johnson, and C. S. Burrus, "Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol. 34, no. 3 (1985), pp. 265–277.
  34. Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality, Vintage Books, 2005, p. 81.
  35. Halliday et al., Physics, vol. 2, 2002, p. 775.
  36. Priyamvada Natarajan, "In Search of Planet X" (review of Dale P. Cruikshank and William Sheehan, Discovering Pluto: Exploration at the Edge of the Solar System, University of Arizona Press, 475 pp.; Alan Stern and David Grinspoon, Chasing New Horizons: Inside the Epic First Mission to Pluto, Picador, 295 pp.; and Adam Morton, Should We Colonize Other Planets?, Polity, 122 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 16 (24 October 2019), pp. 39–41. (p. 39.)
  37. Priyamvada Natarajan, "In Search of Planet X" (review of Dale P. Cruikshank and William Sheehan, Discovering Pluto: Exploration at the Edge of the Solar System, University of Arizona Press, 475 pp.; Alan Stern and David Grinspoon, Chasing New Horizons: Inside the Epic First Mission to Pluto, Picador, 295 pp.; and Adam Morton, Should We Colonize Other Planets?, Polity, 122 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 16 (24 October 2019), pp. 39–41. (p. 39.)
  38. "Aug. 18, 1868: Helium Discovered During Total Solar Eclipse", https://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2009/08/dayintech_0818/
  39. Bolesław Prus, On Discoveries and Inventions: A Public Lecture Delivered on 23 March 1873 by Aleksander Głowacki [Bolesław Prus], Passed by the [Russian] Censor (Warsaw, 21 April 1873), Warsaw, Printed by F. Krokoszyńska, 1873, , p. 13.
  40. Christopher Kasparek, review of Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix, in Zagadnienia naukoznawstwa [Logology, or Science of Science], Warsaw, Polish Academy of Sciences, vol. 14, no. 3 (1978), pp. 461–63.
  41. Wilkinson, Alec, "Illuminating the Brain's 'Utter Darkness'" (review of Benjamin Ehrlich, The Brain in Search of Itself: Santiago Ramón y Cajal and the Story of the Neuron, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2023, 447 pp.; and Timothy J. Jorgensen, Spark: The Life of Electricity and the Electricity of Life, Princeton University Press, 2021, 436 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXX, no. 2 (February 9, 2023), pp. 32, 34–35. (information cited, on pp. 32 and 34.)
  42. Maury Klein, Chapter 9: "The Cowbird, The Plugger, and the Dreamer", The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2010.
  43. Kenneth E. Hendrickson III, The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, p. 564.
  44. Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, p. 933.
  45. N.E. Collinge, The Laws of Indo-European, pp. 149–52.
  46. Collinge, N. E. (1 January 1985). The Laws of Indo-European. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-9027235305.
  47. Skalski JH, Kuch J (April 2006). "Polish thread in the history of circulatory physiology". Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 57 (Suppl 1): 5–41. PMID 16766800.
  48. Yamashima T (May 2003). "Jokichi Takamine (1854–1922), the samurai chemist, and his work on adrenalin". Journal of Medical Biography. 11 (2): 95–102. doi:10.1177/096777200301100211. PMID 12717538. S2CID 32540165.
  49. Bennett MR (June 1999). "One hundred years of adrenaline: the discovery of autoreceptors". Clinical Autonomic Research. 9 (3): 145–59. doi:10.1007/BF02281628. PMID 10454061. S2CID 20999106.
  50. "Had Becquerel... not [in 1896] presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity, and even a Nobel Prize, would have gone to Silvanus Thompson." Robert William Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974, ISBN 0-00-211539-5, pp. 64–65.
  51. "Marie Curie was... beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium. Unknown to her, a German, Gerhard Carl Schmidt, had published his finding in Berlin two months earlier." Robert William Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974, ISBN 0-00-211539-5, p. 65.
  52. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie, New York, W.W. Norton, 2005, ISBN 0-393-05137-4, p. 166.
  53. von Smoluchowski, M. (1906). "Zur kinetischen Theorie der Brownschen Molekularbewegung und der Suspensionen". Annalen der Physik (in German). 326 (14): 756–780. Bibcode:1906AnP...326..756V. doi:10.1002/andp.19063261405.
  54. Sutherland, William (1 June 1905). "LXXV. A dynamical theory of diffusion for non-electrolytes and the molecular mass of albumin". Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 9 (54): 781–785. doi:10.1080/14786440509463331.
  55. ""Stokes-Einstein-Sutherland equation", P. Hänggi" (PDF).
  56. Einstein, A. (1905). "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen". Annalen der Physik (in German). 322 (8): 549–560. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806.
  57. Brush, Stephen G. (June 1978). "Nettie M. Stevens and the Discovery of Sex Determination by Chromosomes". Isis. 69 (2): 162–172. doi:10.1086/352001. JSTOR 230427. PMID 389882. S2CID 1919033.
  58. "Photochemical equivalence law". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
  59. Władysław Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War II, edited and translated by Christopher Kasparek, Frederick, Maryland, University Publications of America, 1984, ISBN 0-89093-547-5, p. 27.
  60. Brian Greene, "Why He [Albert Einstein] Matters: The fruits of one mind shaped civilization more than seems possible", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), pp. 36–37.
  61. "Big bang theory is introduced – 1927". A Science Odyssey. WGBH. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
  62. Rombeck, Terry (January 22, 2005). "Poe's little-known science book reprinted". Lawrence Journal-World & News.
  63. Robinson, Marilynne, "On Edgar Allan Poe", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 2 (5 February 2015), pp. 4, 6.
  64. M.J. O'Dowd, E.E. Philipp, The History of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, London, Parthenon Publishing Group, 1994, p. 547.
  65. Ooishi, W. (1926) Raporto de la Aerologia Observatorio de Tateno (in Esperanto). Aerological Observatory Report 1, Central Meteorological Observatory, Japan, 213 pages.
  66. Lewis, John M. (2003). "Oishi's Observation: Viewed in the Context of Jet Stream Discovery". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 84 (3): 357–369. Bibcode:2003BAMS...84..357L. doi:10.1175/BAMS-84-3-357.
  67. Acepilots.com. Wiley Post. Retrieved on 8 May 2008.
  68. "Weather Basics – Jet Streams". Archived from the original on 29 August 2006. Retrieved 8 May 2009.
  69. "When the jet stream was the wind of war". Archived from the original on 29 January 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
  70. Eggleton, Philip; Eggleton, Grace Palmer (1927). "The inorganic phosphate and a labile form of organic phosphate in the gastrocnemius of the frog". Biochemical Journal. 21 (1): 190–195. doi:10.1042/bj0210190. PMC 1251888. PMID 16743804.
  71. Fiske, Cyrus H.; Subbarow, Yellapragada (1927). "The nature of the 'inorganic phosphate' in voluntary muscle". Science. 65 (1686): 401–403. Bibcode:1927Sci....65..401F. doi:10.1126/science.65.1686.401. PMID 17807679.
  72. Frank, Close (2009-01-22). Antimatter. Oxford University Press. pp. 50–52. ISBN 978-0-19-955016-6.
  73. Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, Bantam Press, 1996, p. 88.
  74. Mirsky, AE; Pauling, Linus (1936). "On the structure of native, denatured, and coagulated proteins". PNAS. 22 (7): 439–447. Bibcode:1936PNAS...22..439M. doi:10.1073/pnas.22.7.439. PMC 1076802. PMID 16577722.
  75. Wu, Hsien (1931). Studies on Denaturation of Proteins XIII. A Theory of Denaturation (reprint). pp. 6–26. doi:10.1016/S0065-3233(08)60330-7. ISBN 9780120342464. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  76. Edsall, John (1995). "Hsien Wu and the First Theory of Protein Denaturation (1931)". Advances in Protein Chemistry Volume 46. Vol. 46. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1016/S0065-3233(08)60329-0. ISBN 978-0-12-034246-4.
  77. See the "bibliographic notes" at the end of chapter 7 in Hopcroft & Ullman, Introduction to Automata, Languages, and Computation, Addison-Wesley, 1979.
  78. Ralston, Anthony; Meek, Christopher, eds. (1976), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (second ed.), pp. 488–489, ISBN 978-0-88405-321-7
  79. Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William (1996), Computer: A History of the Information Machine, New York: Basic Books, p. 84, ISBN 978-0-465-02989-1.
  80. Jane Smiley, The Man Who Invented the Computer: The Biography of John Atanasoff, Digital Pioneer, 2010.
  81. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1986, ISBN 0-671-44133-7, p. 27.
  82. Irwin Abrams website,
  83. Troyer, James (2001). "In the beginning: the multiple discovery of the first hormone herbicides". Weed Science. 49 (2): 290–297. doi:10.1614/0043-1745(2001)049[0290:ITBTMD]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85637273.
  84. "Twists and Turns in the Development of the Transistor". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Archived from the original on 2015-01-08. Retrieved 2015-07-08.
  85. "1948 – The European Transistor Invention". Computer History Museum.
  86. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956". NobelPrize.org.
  87. Festinger, Leon (1949). "The analysis of sociograms using matrix algebra". Human Relations. 2 (2): 153–158. doi:10.1177/001872674900200205. S2CID 143609308.
  88. Luce, R. Duncan; Perry, Albert D. (1949). "A method of matrix analysis of group structure". Psychometrika. 14 (2): 95–116. doi:10.1007/BF02289146. hdl:10.1007/BF02289146. PMID 18152948. S2CID 16186758.
  89. "Background and Theory Page of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Facility". Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre – University of Southern Wales Sydney. 9 December 2011. Archived from the original on 27 January 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  90. The Chip that Jack Built, c. 2008, HTML, Texas Instruments, retrieved 29 May 2008.
  91. Christophe Lécuyer, Making Silicon Valley: Innovation and the Growth of High Tech, 1930–1970, MIT Press, 2006, ISBN 0-262-12281-2, p. 129.
  92. Nobel Web AB, 10 October 2000 The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000, retrieved 29 May 2008.
  93. Golub, G.; Uhlig, F. (8 June 2009). "The QR algorithm: 50 years later its genesis by John Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya and subsequent developments". IMA Journal of Numerical Analysis. 29 (3): 467–485. doi:10.1093/imanum/drp012. ISSN 0272-4979. S2CID 119892206.
  94. Dongarra, J.; Sullivan, F. (January 2000). "Guest Editors Introduction: The Top 10 Algorithms". Computing in Science & Engineering. 2 (1): 22–23. Bibcode:2000CSE.....2a..22D. doi:10.1109/MCISE.2000.814652.
  95. See Chapter 1.6 in the first edition of Li & Vitanyi, An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, who cite Chaitin (1975): "this definition [of Kolmogorov complexity] was independently proposed about 1965 by A.N. Kolmogorov and me ... Both Kolmogorov and I were then unaware of related proposals made in 1960 by Ray Solomonoff."
  96. Ahvenniemi, Esko; Akbashev, Andrew R.; Ali, Saima; Bechelany, Mikhael; Berdova, Maria; Boyadjiev, Stefan; Cameron, David C.; Chen, Rong; Chubarov, Mikhail (2016-12-16). "Review Article: Recommended reading list of early publications on atomic layer deposition—Outcome of the "Virtual Project on the History of ALD"". Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films. 35 (1): 010801. Bibcode:2017JVSTA..35a0801A. doi:10.1116/1.4971389. ISSN 0734-2101.
  97. Puurunen, Riikka L. (2014-12-01). "A Short History of Atomic Layer Deposition: Tuomo Suntola's Atomic Layer Epitaxy". Chemical Vapor Deposition. 20 (10–11–12): 332–344. doi:10.1002/cvde.201402012. ISSN 1521-3862.
  98. Malygin, Anatolii A.; Drozd, Victor E.; Malkov, Anatolii A.; Smirnov, Vladimir M. (2015-12-01). "From V. B. Aleskovskii's "Framework" Hypothesis to the Method of Molecular Layering/Atomic Layer Deposition". Chemical Vapor Deposition. 21 (10–11–12): 216–240. doi:10.1002/cvde.201502013. ISSN 1521-3862.
  99. Heirtzler, James R.; Le Pichon, Xavier; Baron, J. Gregory (1966). "Magnetic anomalies over the Reykjanes Ridge". Deep-Sea Research. 13 (3): 427–32. Bibcode:1966DSRA...13..427H. doi:10.1016/0011-7471(66)91078-3.
  100. Sean Carrol, The Particle at the End of the Universe: The Hunt for the Higgs and the Discovery of a New World, Dutton, 2012, p.228.
  101. A. A. Migdal and A. M. Polyakov, "Spontaneous Breakdown of Strong Interaction Symmetry and Absence of Massless Particles" Archived 2013-12-03 at the Wayback Machine, JETP 51, 135, July 1966 (English translation: Soviet Physics JETP, 24, 1, January 1967)
  102. Navarro, Gonzalo (2001). "A guided tour to approximate string matching" (PDF). ACM Computing Surveys. 33 (1): 31–88. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.452.6317. doi:10.1145/375360.375365. S2CID 207551224.
  103. Joshua Rothman, "The Rules of the Game: How does science really work?" (review of Michael Strevens, The Knowledge Machine: How Irrationality Created Modern Science, Liveright), The New Yorker, 5 October 2020, pp. 67–71. (p. 68.)
  104. See Garey & Johnson, Computers and intractability, p. 119.
    Cf. also the survey article by Trakhtenbrot (see "External Links").
    Levin emigrated to the U.S. in 1978.
  105. Endo, Akira; Kuroda, M.; Tsujita, Y. (1976). "ML-236A, ML-236B, and ML-236C, new inhibitors of cholesterogenesis produced by Penicillium citrinium". The Journal of Antibiotics. 29 (12): 1346–8. doi:10.7164/antibiotics.29.1346. PMID 1010803.
  106. Brown, Alian G.; Smale, Terry C.; King, Trevor J.; Hasenkamp, Rainer; Thompson, Ronald H. (1976). "Crystal and Molecular Structure of Compactin, a New Antifungal Metabolite from Penicillium brevicompactum". J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1 (11): 1165–1170. doi:10.1039/P19760001165. PMID 945291.
  107. D. J. Gross, F. Wilczek, Ultraviolet behavior of non-abeilan gauge theoreies Archived 2008-07-05 at the Wayback Machine, Physical Review Letters 30 (1973) 1343–1346; H. D. Politzer, Reliable perturbative results for strong interactions Archived 2019-06-30 at the Wayback Machine, Physical Review Letters 30 (1973) 1346–1349
  108. Israel Rosenfield and Edward Ziff, "Epigenetics: The Evolution Revolution", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 10 (7 June 2018), pp. 36,38.
  109. Alvarez, L W; Alvarez, W; Asaro, F; Michel, H V (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction" (PDF). Science. 208 (4448): 1095–1108. Bibcode:1980Sci...208.1095A. doi:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095. PMID 17783054. S2CID 16017767.
  110. Peter Brannen, "The Worst Times on Earth: Mass extinctions send us a warning about the future of life on this planet", Scientific American, vol. 323, no. 3 (September 2020), pp. 74–81. (The Smit–Hertogen independent discovery is referenced on p. 80.)
  111. Gallo RC, Sarin PS, Gelmann EP, Robert-Guroff M, Richardson E, Kalyanaraman VS, Mann D, Sidhu GD, Stahl RE, Zolla-Pazner S, Leibowitch J, Popovic M (1983). "Isolation of human T-cell leukemia virus in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science. 220 (4599): 865–867. Bibcode:1983Sci...220..865G. doi:10.1126/science.6601823. PMID 6601823.
  112. Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vézinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science. 220 (4599): 868–871. Bibcode:1983Sci...220..868B. doi:10.1126/science.6189183. PMID 6189183. S2CID 390173.
  113. "The 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine - Press Release". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2018-01-28.
  114. Levy JA; et al. (1984). "Isolation of lymphocytopathic retroviruses from San Francisco patients with AIDS". Science. 225 (4664): 840–842. Bibcode:1984Sci...225..840L. doi:10.1126/science.6206563. PMID 6206563.
  115. Levy JA, Kaminsky LS, Morrow WJ, Steimer K, Luciw P, Dina D, Hoxie J, Oshiro L (1985). "Infection by the retrovirus associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome". Annals of Internal Medicine. 103 (5): 694–699. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-103-5-694. PMID 2996401.
  116. Tim Folger, "The Quantum Hack: Quantum computers will render today's cryptographic methods obsolete. What happens then?" Scientific American, vol. 314, no. 2 (February 2016), pp. 50, 53.
  117. David H. Levy, "My Life as a Comet Hunter: The need to pass a French test, of all things, spurred half a century of cosmic sleuthing", Scientific American, vol. 314, no. 2 (February 2016), pp. 70–71.
  118. See EATCS on the Gödel Prize 1995 Archived 2007-08-04 at the Wayback Machine.
  119. Paál, G.; Horváth, I.; Lukács, B. (1992). "Inflation and compactification from Galaxy redshifts?". Astrophysics and Space Science. 191 (1): 107–124. Bibcode:1992Ap&SS.191..107P. doi:10.1007/BF00644200. S2CID 116951785.
  120. In regard to his "cosmological constant", "Einstein... blundered twice: by introducing the cosmological constant for the wrong reason [to maintain a static universe, before the advent of the Big Bang theory] and again by throwing it out instead of exploring its implications [including an accelerating universe]." Lawrence M. Krauss, "What Einstein Got Wrong: Cosmology", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), p. 55.
  121. Randerson, James and Ian Sample (6 October 2015). "Kajita and McDonald win Nobel physics prize for work on neutrinos". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
  122. Jerome Groopman, "The Body Strikes Back" (review of Matt Richtel, An Elegant Defense: The Extraordinary New Science of the Immune System: A Tale in Four Lives, William Morrow, 425 pp.; and Daniel M. Davis, The Beautiful Cure: The Revolution in Immunology and What It Means for Your Health, University of Chicago Press, 260 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 5 (21 March 2019), pp. 22–24.
  123. Ford, Kevin; Green, Ben; Konyagin, Sergei; Tao, Terence (2016). "Large gaps between consecutive prime numbers". Annals of Mathematics. 183 (3): 935–974. arXiv:1408.4505. doi:10.4007/annals.2016.183.3.4. S2CID 16336889.
  124. Maynard, James (21 August 2014). "Large gaps between primes". arXiv:1408.5110 [math.NT].
  125. Press release: The Nobel Prize in Physics 2020.
  126. "Surprise! It's a Nobel Prize", UCSF Magazine, Winter 2022, pp. 28–29.
  127. Casey Cep, "The Perfecter: A new biography of Thomas Edison recalibrates our understanding of the inventor's genius", The New Yorker, 28 October 2019, pp. 72–77. (p. 76.) Casey Cep makes reference to Robert K. Merton's concept of multiple discoveries, adding: "The problems of the age attract the problem solvers of the age, all of whom work more or less within the same constraints and avail themselves of the same existing theories and technologies." (p. 76.)

Bibliography

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.