Growth of photovoltaics

Between 1992 and 2022, the worldwide usage of photovoltaics (PV) increased exponentially. During this period, it evolved from a niche market of small-scale applications to a mainstream electricity source.[3] From 2016-2022 it has seen an annual capacity and production growth rate of around 26%- doubling approximately every three years.

Benefitting from favorable policies and declining costs of modules, photovoltaic solar installation has grown consistently, with China expected to account for 50% of new global solar photovoltaic projects by 2024.[1][2]

When solar PV systems were first recognized as a promising renewable energy technology, subsidy programs, such as feed-in tariffs, were implemented by a number of governments in order to provide economic incentives for investments. For several years, growth was mainly driven by Japan and pioneering European countries. As a consequence, cost of solar declined significantly due to experience curve effects like improvements in technology and economies of scale. Several national programs were instrumental in increasing PV deployment, such as the Energiewende in Germany, the Million Solar Roofs project in the United States, and China's 2011 five-year-plan for energy production.[4] Since then, deployment of photovoltaics has gained momentum on a worldwide scale, increasingly competing with conventional energy sources. In the early 21st century a market for utility-scale plants emerged to complement rooftop and other distributed applications.[5] By 2015, some 30 countries had reached grid parity.[6]: 9 

Since the 1950s, when the first solar cells were commercially manufactured, there has been a succession of countries leading the world as the largest producer of electricity from solar photovoltaics. First it was the United States, then Japan,[7] followed by Germany, and currently China.

By the end of 2022, the global cumulative installed PV capacity reached about 1,185 gigawatts (GW), supplying over 6% of global electricity demand,[8] up from about 3% in 2019.[9] In 2022, solar PV contributed over 10% of the annual domestic consumption of electricity in nine countries, with Spain, Greece and Chile over 17%.[8]

Projections for photovoltaic growth are difficult and burdened with many uncertainties. Official agencies, such as the International Energy Agency (IEA) have consistently increased their estimates for decades, while still falling far short of projecting actual deployment in every forecast.[10][11][12] Bloomberg NEF projects global solar installations to grow in 2019, adding another 125–141 GW resulting in a total capacity of 637–653 GW by the end of the year.[13] By 2050, the IEA foresees solar PV to reach 4.7 terawatts (4,674 GW) in its high-renewable scenario, of which more than half will be deployed in China and India, making solar power the world's largest source of electricity.[14][15]

Solar PV nameplate capacity

Nameplate capacity denotes the peak power output of power stations in unit watt prefixed as convenient, to e.g. kilowatt (kW), megawatt (MW) and gigawatt (GW). Because power output for variable renewable sources is unpredictable, a source's average generation is generally significantly lower than the nameplate capacity. In order to have an estimate of the average power output, the capacity can be multiplied by a suitable capacity factor, which takes into account varying conditions - weather, nighttime, latitude, maintenance. Worldwide, the average solar PV capacity factor is 11%.[16] In addition, depending on context, the stated peak power may be prior to a subsequent conversion to alternating current, e.g. for a single photovoltaic panel, or include this conversion and its loss for a grid connected photovoltaic power station.[17]: 15 [18]: 10 

Wind power has different characteristics, e.g. a higher capacity factor and about four times the 2015 electricity production of solar power. Compared with wind power, photovoltaic power production correlates well with power consumption for air-conditioning in warm countries. As of 2017, a handful of utilities have started combining PV installations with battery banks, thus obtaining several hours of dispatchable generation to help mitigate problems associated with the duck curve after sunset.[19][20]

Current status

Worldwide

In 2022, the total global photovoltaic capacity increased by 228 GW, with a 24% growth year-on-year of new installations. As a result, the total global capacity exceeded 1,185 GW by the end of the year.

Regions

As of 2018, Asia was the fastest growing region, with almost 75% of global installations. China alone accounted for more than half of worldwide deployment in 2017. In terms of cumulative capacity, Asia was the most developed region with more than half of the global total of 401 GW in 2017.[21] Europe continued to decline as a percentage of the global PV market. In 2017, Europe represented 28% of global capacity, the Americas 19% and Middle East 2%.[21] However, with respect to per capita installation the European Union has more than twice the capacity compared to China and 25% more than the US.

Countries and territories
Main article: Solar power by country

The worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country. In April 2022, the total global solar power capacity reached 1 TW. In 2022, the leading country for solar power was China, with about 390 GW, accounting for nearly two-fifths of the total global installed solar capacity. As of 2022, there are more than 40 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt, incl. Canada, South Africa, Chile, the United Kingdom, South Korea, Austria, Argentina and the Philippines. The top installers of 2022 included China, the United States, India, Brazil and Germany.[22]

Solar PV capacity by country and territory (MW) and share of total electricity consumption
2016[23] 2017[21] 2018[24][25] 2019[9][26] 2020[27][28] 2021[29][30] 2022[31] W per capita
2019		 W per capita
2021		 Share of total
consumption1
Country or territoryNewTotalNewTotal NewTotal NewTotal New Total New Total New Total
China China 34,540 78,070 53,000 131,000 45,000 175,018 30,100 204,700 49,655 254,355 52,618 306,973 86,059 393,032 147 217 6.5% (2022)[32]
European Union European Union 91,890 4,737 96,627 7,832 104,459 16,186 120,645 18,296 138,941 25,734 164,675 35,972 200,647 295 400 8.7% (2022)[32]
United States United States 14,730 40,300 10,600 51,000 10,600 53,184 13,300 60,682 14,890 75,572 19,637 95,209 17,806 113,015 184 289 5.1% (2022)[32]
Japan Japan 8,600 42,750 7,000 49,000 6,500 55,500 7,000 63,000 4,000 67,000 7,191 74,191 4,642 78,833 498 590 10.2% (2022)[32]
Germany Germany 1,520 41,220 1,800 42,000 3,000 45,930 3,900 49,200 4,583 53,783 4,678 58,461 8,093 66,554 593 711 12.4% (2022)[32]
India India 3,970 9,010 9,100 18,300 10,800 26,869 9,900 35,089 4,122 39,211 10,473 49,684 13,462 63,146 32 36 9.5% (2022)[32]
Australia Australia 839 5,900 1,250 7,200 3,800 11,300 3,700 15,928 1,699 17,627 1,449 19,076 7,716 26,792 637 990 15.7% (2022)[32]
Italy Italy 373 19,279 409 19,700 420 20,120 600 20,800 800 21,600 1,098 22,698 2,385 25,083 345 381 9.1% (2022)[32]
Brazil Brazil[33][34] 200 900 1,100 1,313 2,413 2,138 4,595 3,145 7,881 5,827 14,197 9,882 24,079 22 64 2.5% (2021)[35]
South Korea South Korea 850 4,350 1,200 5,600 2,000 7,862 3,100 11,200 3,375 14,575 3,586 18,161 2,814 20,975 217 350 4.7% (2022)[32]
Spain Spain[36] 4,669 19 4,688 19 4,707 4,004 8,711 5,378 14,089 1,863 15,952 4,566 20,518 186 237 19.1% (2022)[32]
Netherlands Netherlands 519 2,135 776 2,911 1,697 4,608 2,618 7,226 3,882 11,108 3,803 14,911 4,232 19,143 396 757 14.3% (2022)[37]
Vietnam Vietnam 6 3 9 97 106 4,800 5,695 10,909 16,504 156 16,660 1,814 18,474 60 171 9.9% (2022)[38]
France France 559 7,130 870 8,000 1,483 9,483 417 9,900 1,833 11,733 2,985 14,718 2,701 17,419 148 218 4.6% (2022)[32]
United Kingdom United Kingdom 1,970 11,630 900 12,700 408 13,108 233 13,346 177 13,563 126 13,689 723 14,412 200 203 4.7% (2022)[32]
Poland Poland 487 813 1,300 2,636 3,936 2,321 6,257 4,910 11,167 34 165 5.4% (2022)[39]
Taiwan Taiwan 2,618 1,482 4,100 1,717 5,817 1,883 7,700 2,024 9,724 172 327 3.7% (2022)[38]
Turkey Turkey 584 832 2,600 3,400 1,600 5,063 932 5,995 673 6,668 1,149 7,817 1,609 9,426 73 92 6.6% (2022)[32]
Mexico Mexico 150 320 150 539 2,700 3,200 1,226 4,426 1,218 5,644 1,396 7,040 1,986 9,026 35 55 5.2% (2022)[32]
Ukraine Ukraine 99 531 211 742 1,200 2,003 1,557 3,560 1,800 5,360 2,702 8,062 0 8,062 114 183 5.0% (2020)[40]
Belgium Belgium 170 3,422 284 3,800 226 4,026 505 4,531 1,115 5,646 939 6,585 313 6,898 394 569 8.7% (2022)[32]
South Africa South Africa 536 1,450 13 1,800 759 2,559 2 2,561 3,429 5,990 231 6,221 105 6,326 44 105 4.2% (2022)[32]
Chile Chile 746 1,610 668 1,800 337 2,137 511 2,648 557 3,205 1,263 4,468 1,782 6,250 142 234 17.0% (2022)[32]
Greece Greece 2,652 111 2,763 484 3,247 1,030 4,277 1,280 5,557 258 329 17.5% (2022)[32]
Switzerland Switzerland 250 1,640 260 1,900 346 2,246 332 2,498 493 2,973 683 3,449 1,084 4,533 295 412 7.1% (2022)[32]
Israel Israel 130 910 60 1,100 -30 1,070 120 1,190 1,059 2,249 306 2,555 1,856 4,411 134 277 12.3% (2022)[32]
Canada Canada 200 2,715 212 2,900 213 3,113 197 3,310 15 3,325 305 3,630 771 4,401 88 96 1.0% (2022)[32]
Austria Austria 154 1,077 153 1,250 181 1,431 147 1,578 642 2,220 472 2,692 856 3,548 178 302 5.9% (2022)[32]
Thailand Thailand 726 2,150 251 2,700 20 2,720 262 2,982 6 2,988 77 3,065 0 3,065 43 44 3.4% (2022)[32]
United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates 42 213 255 239 494 1,289 1,783 756 2,539 166 2,705 335 3,040 185 273 4.9% (2021)[38]
Hungary Hungary 665 612 1,277 676 1,953 178 2,131 857 2,988 131 218 11.1% (2021)[41]
Czech Republic Czech Republic 48 2,131 63 2,193 -115 2,078 -8 2,070 3 2,073 46 2,119 508 2,627 194 198 3.5% (2022)[32]
Sweden Sweden 60 175 93 303 118 421 223 644 773 1,417 160 1,577 1,029 2,606 63 152 1.9% (2022)[32]
Portugal Portugal 58 513 57 577 93 670 158 828 197 1,025 776 1,801 735 2,536 81 174 8.4% (2022)[32]
Denmark Denmark 70 900 60 910 88 998 81 1,079 221 1,300 240 1,540 950 2,490 186 264 7.3% (2022)[32]
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan 58 117 175 315 490 660 1,150 569 1,719 204 1,923 108 2,031 1.2% (2022)[38]
Bulgaria Bulgaria 1,028 8 1,036 0 1,036 29 1,065 8 1,073 202 1,275 673 1,948 152 171 5.8% (2022)[32]
Malaysia Malaysia 54 286 50 386 52 438 444 882 611 1,493 294 1,787 146 1,933 28 55 0.6% (2022)[32]
Jordan Jordan 298 173 471 358 829 169 998 361 1,359 162 1,521 393 1,914 100 149 16.0% (2021)[38]
Russia Russia 15 77 159 236 310 546 518 1,064 364 1,428 233 1,661 155 1,816 7 11 0.2% (2022)[38]
Egypt Egypt 48 121 169 581 750 897 1,647 47 1,694 -19 1,675 49 1,724 17 17
Philippines Philippines 756 900 886 36 922 126 1,048 322 1,370 255 1,625 9 13
Romania Romania 1,372 2 1,374 3 1,377 9 1,386 1 1,387 11 1,398 16 1,414 71 74 4.4% (2022)[32]
Pakistan Pakistan 589 66 655 24 679 34 713 24 737 346 1,083 160 1,243 6 6
Argentina Argentina 9 0 9 182 191 251 442 322 764 307 1,071 33 1,104 10 24 2.1% (2022)[42]
Morocco Morocco 202 2 204 530 734 0 734 0 774 80 854 4 858 6 21 4.8% (2022)[32]
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic 73 33 106 99 205 100 305 65 370 224 594 148 742 45
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka 63 68 131 54 185 100 285 146 431 193 624 90 714 20
El Salvador El Salvador 28 98 126 80 206 187 403 75 478 165 643 21 664 74
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico 247 55 302 3 305 31 336 48 384 104 491 148 639 154
Oman Oman 2 6 8 0 8 1 9 100 109 29 138 500 638 27
Slovenia Slovenia 232 15 247 0 247 17 264 106 370 91 461 171 632 175
Finland Finland[43] 17 37 23 80 54 134 81 215 176 391 34 425 166 591 39 73 0.4% (2022)[32]
Singapore Singapore 97 21 118 42 160 95 255 74 329 158 487 85 572 45 76 0.8% (2018)[44]
Lithuania Lithuania[24] 1 70 4 74 10 84 19 103 61 164 91 255 313 568 37 121 10.3% (2022)[45]
Iran Iran 34 43 141 184 102 286 81 367 85 414 42 456 83 539 5 5 0.4% (2019)[25]
Slovakia Slovakia 533 -5 528 -56 472 0 472 63 535 0 537 0 537 87 98 2.4% (2022)[32]
BangladeshBangladesh 161 24 185 16 201 83 284 33 317 163 480 57 537 2 2
Estonia Estonia 10 5 15 17 32 89 121 87 208 187 395 140 535 311
Honduras Honduras 414 37 451 34 485 26 511 14 525 4 529 0 529 53 53 12.9% (2022)[32]
Panama Panama 93 54 147 46 193 5 198 0 198 267 465 57 522 108
Cyprus Cyprus 14 84 21 105 8 113 16 129 71 200 116 316 148 464 147 262 3.3% (2016)[46]
AlgeriaAlgeria 219 181 400 23 423 0 423 25 448 0 448 12 460 10 10
Colombia Colombia 2 9 11 75 86 4 90 17 107 77 184 273 457 4
Cambodia Cambodia 18 9 29 0 29 95 124 191 315 61 376 80 456 26
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia 24 10 34 50 84 325 409 0 409 30 439 1 440 13
Peru Peru 146 152 298 27 325 6 331 0 331 1 332 0 332 10
Norway Norway 11 27 18 45 23 68 22 90 62 152 53 205 116 321 17 42 0.2% (2022)[32]
Luxembourg Luxembourg 122 5 127 7 134 16 150 45 195 83 277 42 319 244 330
Kenya Kenya 32 14 46 61 107 20 127 20 147 71 218 89 307 3
Armenia Armenia 1 1 2 15 17 34 50 56 106 111 217 89 306 62
New Zealand New Zealand 53 17 70 20 90 27 117 25 142 95 237 66 303 29
Indonesia Indonesia 88 10 98 0 98 57 155 17 172 53 225 66 291 0.77
Uruguay Uruguay 89 154 243 5 248 6 254 2 256 2 258 12 270 69
Belarus Belarus 51 102 153 4 157 0 157 2 159 1 160 109 269 29
SenegalSenegal 43 70 113 21 134 0 134 21 155 83 238 25 263 8 14
Cuba Cuba 37 28 65 123 128 31 159 4 163 83 246 12 258 22
Yemen Yemen 80 20 100 150 250 0 250 3 253 0 253 4 257 8
Uzbekistan Uzbekistan 2 1 3 1 4 0 4 0 4 100 104 149 253 3
Mali Mali 18 1 19 0 19 0 19 40 59 30 89 140 229 5
Malta Malta 20 93 19 112 15 127 27 154 30 184 22 206 0 206 312 373 9.6% (2021)[47]
Sudan Sudan 26 10 36 23 59 21 80 37 117 19 136 54 190 3
Croatia Croatia[24] 8 56 4 60 1 68 17 85 24 109 19 138 44 182 17 27
NamibiaNamibia 36 34 70 18 88 63 151 0 151 0 151 25 176 55 57
Bolivia Bolivia 6 2 8 62 70 50 120 0 120 50 170 0 170 15
Malawi Malawi 12 7 19 7 26 54 80 2 82 59 141 2 143 7
Republic of Ireland Ireland 6 11 17 15 32 26 58 35 93 42 135 0 135 27
Nepal Nepal 2 3 25 28 10 38 7 45 25 70 23 93 24 117 17 3 0.1% (2020)[27]
Guatemala Guatemala 93 6 99 2 101 0 101 0 101 0 101 4 105 6
Ghana Ghana 38 9 47 19 66 6 72 23 95 3 98 0 98 3
Iraq Iraq 37 0 37 0 37 0 37 0 37 0 37 5 42
World total 76,800 306,500 95,000 401,500 108,500 510,000 70,760 580,760 133,210 713,970 135,503 849,473 203,642 1,053,115 83 108 6.2% (2022)[32]
1 Share of total electricity consumption for latest available year

History of leading countries
See also: Timeline of solar cells
The growth of solar PV on a semi-log scale since 1996

The United States was the leader of installed photovoltaics for many years, and its total capacity was 77 megawatts in 1996, more than any other country in the world at the time. From the late 1990s, Japan was the world's leader of solar electricity production until 2005, when Germany took the lead and by 2016 had a capacity of over 40 gigawatts. In 2015, China surpassed Germany to become the world's largest producer of photovoltaic power,[48] and in 2017 became the first country to surpass 100 GW of installed capacity. Leading countries per capita in 2022 were Australia, Netherlands and Germany.

United States (1954–1996)

The United States, where modern solar PV was invented, led installed capacity for many years. Based on preceding work by Swedish and German engineers, the American engineer Russell Ohl at Bell Labs patented the first modern solar cell in 1946.[49][50][51] It was also there at Bell Labs where the first practical c-silicon cell was developed in 1954.[52][53] Hoffman Electronics, the leading manufacturer of silicon solar cells in the 1950s and 1960s, improved on the cell's efficiency, produced solar radios, and equipped Vanguard I, the first solar powered satellite launched into orbit in 1958.

In 1977 US-President Jimmy Carter installed solar hot water panels on the White House (later removed by President Reagan) promoting solar energy[54] and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, originally named Solar Energy Research Institute was established at Golden, Colorado. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules were used in stand-alone power systems or powered consumer products such as watches, calculators and toys, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing grid-connected rooftop PV systems and power stations. By 1996, solar PV capacity in the US amounted to 77 megawatts–more than any other country in the world at the time. Then, Japan moved ahead.

Japan (1997–2004)

Japan took the lead as the world's largest producer of PV electricity, after the city of Kobe was hit by the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995. Kobe experienced severe power outages in the aftermath of the earthquake, and PV systems were then considered as a temporary supplier of power during such events, as the disruption of the electric grid paralyzed the entire infrastructure, including gas stations that depended on electricity to pump gasoline. Moreover, in December of that same year, an accident occurred at the multibillion-dollar experimental Monju Nuclear Power Plant. A sodium leak caused a major fire and forced a shutdown (classified as INES 1). There was massive public outrage when it was revealed that the semigovernmental agency in charge of Monju had tried to cover up the extent of the accident and resulting damage.[55][56] Japan remained world leader in photovoltaics until 2004, when its capacity amounted to 1,132 megawatts. Then, focus on PV deployment shifted to Europe.

Germany (2005–2014)

In 2005, Germany took the lead from Japan. With the introduction of the Renewable Energy Act in 2000, feed-in tariffs were adopted as a policy mechanism. This policy established that renewables have priority on the grid, and that a fixed price must be paid for the produced electricity over a 20-year period, providing a guaranteed return on investment irrespective of actual market prices. As a consequence, a high level of investment security lead to a soaring number of new photovoltaic installations that peaked in 2011, while investment costs in renewable technologies were brought down considerably. In 2016 Germany's installed PV capacity was over the 40 GW mark.

China (2015–present)

China surpassed Germany's capacity by the end of 2015, becoming the world's largest producer of photovoltaic power.[57] China's rapid PV growth continued in 2016 – with 34.2 GW of solar photovoltaics installed.[58] The quickly lowering feed in tariff rates[59] at the end of 2015 motivated many developers to secure tariff rates before mid-year 2016 – as they were anticipating further cuts (correctly so[60]). During the course of the year, China announced its goal of installing 100 GW during the next Chinese Five Year Economic Plan (2016–2020). China expected to spend ¥1 trillion ($145B) on solar construction[61] during that period. Much of China's PV capacity was built in the relatively less populated west of the country whereas the main centres of power consumption were in the east (such as Shanghai and Beijing).[62] Due to lack of adequate power transmission lines to carry the power from the solar power plants, China had to curtail its PV generated power.[62][63][64]

History of market development

Prices and costs (1977–present)
Swanson's law–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "learning curve" of solar photovoltaics.[65]
Price decline of c-Si solar cells
Type of cell or module Price per Watt
Multi-Si Cell (≥18.6%)$0.071
Mono-Si Cell (≥20.0%)$0.090
G1 Mono-Si Cell (>21.7%)$0.099
M6 Mono-Si Cell (>21.7%)$0.100
275W - 280W (60P) Module$0.176
325W - 330W (72P) Module$0.188
305W - 310W Module$0.240
315W - 320W Module$0.190
>325W - >385W Module$0.200
Source: EnergyTrend, price quotes, average prices, 13 July 2020[66] 

The average price per watt dropped drastically for solar cells in the decades leading up to 2017. While in 1977 prices for crystalline silicon cells were about $77 per watt, average spot prices in August 2018 were as low as $0.13 per watt or nearly 600 times less than forty years ago. Prices for thin-film solar cells and for c-Si solar panels were around $.60 per watt.[67] Module and cell prices declined even further after 2014 (see price quotes in table).

This price trend was seen as evidence supporting Swanson's law (an observation similar to the famous Moore's Law) that states that the per-watt cost of solar cells and panels fall by 20 percent for every doubling of cumulative photovoltaic production.[68] A 2015 study showed price/kWh dropping by 10% per year since 1980, and predicted that solar could contribute 20% of total electricity consumption by 2030.[69]

In its 2014 edition of the Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy report, the International Energy Agency (IEA) published prices for residential, commercial and utility-scale PV systems for eight major markets as of 2013 (see table below).[14] However, DOE's SunShot Initiative report states lower prices than the IEA report, although both reports were published at the same time and referred to the same period. After 2014 prices fell further. For 2014, the SunShot Initiative modeled U.S. system prices to be in the range of $1.80 to $3.29 per watt.[70] Other sources identified similar price ranges of $1.70 to $3.50 for the different market segments in the U.S.[71] In the highly penetrated German market, prices for residential and small commercial rooftop systems of up to 100 kW declined to $1.36 per watt (€1.24/W) by the end of 2014.[72] In 2015, Deutsche Bank estimated costs for small residential rooftop systems in the U.S. around $2.90 per watt. Costs for utility-scale systems in China and India were estimated as low as $1.00 per watt.[6]: 9 

Typical PV system prices in 2013 in selected countries (USD)
USD/W Australia China France Germany Italy Japan United Kingdom United States
 Residential 1.8 1.5 4.1 2.4 2.8 4.2 2.8 4.91
 Commercial 1.7 1.4 2.7 1.8 1.9 3.6 2.4 4.51
 Utility-scale 2.0 1.4 2.2 1.4 1.5 2.9 1.9 3.31
Source: IEA – Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy report, September 2014'[14]: 15 
1U.S figures are lower in DOE's Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends[70]

According to the International Renewable Energy Agency, a "sustained, dramatic decline" in utility-scale solar PV electricity cost driven by lower solar PV module and system costs continued in 2018, with global weighted average levelized cost of energy of solar PV falling to US$0.085 per kilowatt-hour, or 13% lower than projects commissioned the previous year, resulting in a decline from 2010 to 2018 of 77%.[73]

Technologies (1990–present)
Global photovoltaics market share by technology 1980-2021. [74]: 24, 25 

There were significant advances in conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) technology in the years leading up to 2017. The falling cost of the polysilicon since 2009, that followed after a period of severe shortage (see below) of silicon feedstock, pressure increased on manufacturers of commercial thin-film PV technologies, including amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), led to the bankruptcy of several thin-film companies that had once been highly touted.[75] The sector faced price competition from Chinese crystalline silicon cell and module manufacturers, and some companies together with their patents were sold below cost.[76]

Global PV market by technology in 2021.[74]: 24, 25 

  CdTe (4.1%)
  a-Si (0.1%)
  CIGS (0.8%)
  mono-Si (82%)
  multi-Si (13%)

In 2013 thin-film technologies accounted for about 9 percent of worldwide deployment, while 91 percent was held by crystalline silicon (mono-Si and multi-Si). With 5 percent of the overall market, CdTe held more than half of the thin-film market, leaving 2 percent to each CIGS and amorphous silicon.[77]: 24–25 

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is the name of the semiconductor material on which the technology is based. One of the largest producers of CIGS photovoltaics in 2015 was the Japanese company Solar Frontier with a manufacturing capacity in the gigawatt-scale. Their CIS line technology included modules with conversion efficiencies of over 15%.[78] The company profited from the booming Japanese market and attempted to expand its international business. However, several prominent manufacturers could not keep up with the advances in conventional crystalline silicon technology. The company Solyndra ceased all business activity and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2011, and Nanosolar, also a CIGS manufacturer, closed its doors in 2013. Although both companies produced CIGS solar cells, it has been pointed out, that the failure was not due to the technology but rather because of the companies themselves, using a flawed architecture, such as, for example, Solyndra's cylindrical substrates.[79]
The U.S.-company First Solar, a leading manufacturer of CdTe, built several of the world's largest solar power stations, such as the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm and Topaz Solar Farm, both in the Californian desert with 550 MW capacity each, as well as the 102 MWAC Nyngan Solar Plant in Australia (the largest PV power station in the Southern Hemisphere at the time) commissioned in mid-2015.[80] The company was reported in 2013 to be successfully producing CdTe-panels with a steadily increasing efficiency and declining cost per watt.[81]: 18–19  CdTe was the lowest energy payback time of all mass-produced PV technologies, and could be as short as eight months in favorable locations.[77]: 31  The company Abound Solar, also a manufacturer of cadmium telluride modules, went bankrupt in 2012.[82]
In 2012, ECD solar, once one of the world's leading manufacturer of amorphous silicon (a-Si) technology, filed for bankruptcy in Michigan, United States. Swiss OC Oerlikon divested its solar division that produced a-Si/μc-Si tandem cells to Tokyo Electron Limited.[83][84] Other companies that left the amorphous silicon thin-film market include DuPont, BP, Flexcell, Inventux, Pramac, Schuco, Sencera, EPV Solar,[85] NovaSolar (formerly OptiSolar)[86] and Suntech Power that stopped manufacturing a-Si modules in 2010 to focus on crystalline silicon solar panels. In 2013, Suntech filed for bankruptcy in China.[87][88]

Silicon shortage (2005–2008)
Polysilicon prices since 2004. As of July 2020, the ASP for polysilicon stands at $6.956/kg[66]

In the early 2000s, prices for polysilicon, the raw material for conventional solar cells, were as low as $30 per kilogram and silicon manufacturers had no incentive to expand production.

However, there was a severe silicon shortage in 2005, when governmental programmes caused a 75% increase in the deployment of solar PV in Europe. In addition, the demand for silicon from semiconductor manufacturers was growing. Since the amount of silicon needed for semiconductors makes up a much smaller portion of production costs, semiconductor manufacturers were able to outbid solar companies for the available silicon in the market.[89]

Initially, the incumbent polysilicon producers were slow to respond to rising demand for solar applications, because of their painful experience with over-investment in the past. Silicon prices sharply rose to about $80 per kilogram, and reached as much as $400/kg for long-term contracts and spot prices. In 2007, the constraints on silicon became so severe that the solar industry was forced to idle about a quarter of its cell and module manufacturing capacity—an estimated 777 MW of the then available production capacity. The shortage also provided silicon specialists with both the cash and an incentive to develop new technologies and several new producers entered the market. Early responses from the solar industry focused on improvements in the recycling of silicon. When this potential was exhausted, companies have been taking a harder look at alternatives to the conventional Siemens process.[90]

As it takes about three years to build a new polysilicon plant, the shortage continued until 2008. Prices for conventional solar cells remained constant or even rose slightly during the period of silicon shortage from 2005 to 2008. This is notably seen as a "shoulder" that sticks out in the Swanson's PV-learning curve and it was feared that a prolonged shortage could delay solar power becoming competitive with conventional energy prices without subsidies.

In the meantime the solar industry lowered the number of grams-per-watt by reducing wafer thickness and kerf loss, increasing yields in each manufacturing step, reducing module loss, and raising panel efficiency. Finally, the ramp up of polysilicon production alleviated worldwide markets from the scarcity of silicon in 2009 and subsequently lead to an overcapacity with sharply declining prices in the photovoltaic industry for the following years.

Solar overcapacity (2009–2013)
Solar module production
utilization of production capacity in %
Utilization rate of solar PV module production capacity in % since 1993[91]: 47 

As the polysilicon industry had started to build additional large production capacities during the shortage period, prices dropped as low as $15 per kilogram forcing some producers to suspend production or exit the sector. Prices for silicon stabilized around $20 per kilogram and the booming solar PV market helped to reduce the enormous global overcapacity from 2009 onwards. However, overcapacity in the PV industry continued to persist. In 2013, global record deployment of 38 GW (updated EPIA figure[17]) was still much lower than China's annual production capacity of approximately 60 GW. Continued overcapacity was further reduced by significantly lowering solar module prices and, as a consequence, many manufacturers could no longer cover costs or remain competitive. As worldwide growth of PV deployment continued, the gap between overcapacity and global demand was expected in 2014 to close in the next few years.[92]

IEA-PVPS published in 2014 historical data for the worldwide utilization of solar PV module production capacity that showed a slow return to normalization in manufacture in the years leading up to 2014. The utilization rate is the ratio of production capacities versus actual production output for a given year. A low of 49% was reached in 2007 and reflected the peak of the silicon shortage that idled a significant share of the module production capacity. As of 2013, the utilization rate had recovered somewhat and increased to 63%.[91]: 47 

Anti-dumping duties (2012–present)

After anti-dumping petition were filed and investigations carried out,[93] the United States imposed tariffs of 31 percent to 250 percent on solar products imported from China in 2012.[94] A year later, the EU also imposed definitive anti-dumping and anti-subsidy measures on imports of solar panels from China at an average of 47.7 percent for a two-year time span.[95]

Shortly thereafter, China, in turn, levied duties on U.S. polysilicon imports, the feedstock for the production of solar cells.[96] In January 2014, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce set its anti-dumping tariff on U.S. polysilicon producers, such as Hemlock Semiconductor Corporation to 57%, while other major polysilicon producing companies, such as German Wacker Chemie and Korean OCI were much less affected. All this has caused much controversy between proponents and opponents and was subject of debate.

History of deployment
2016-2020 development of the Bhadla Solar Park (India), documented on Sentinel-2 satellite imagery

Deployment figures on a global, regional and nationwide scale are well documented since the early 1990s. While worldwide photovoltaic capacity grew continuously, deployment figures by country were much more dynamic, as they depended strongly on national policies. A number of organizations release comprehensive reports on PV deployment on a yearly basis. They include annual and cumulative deployed PV capacity, typically given in watt-peak, a break-down by markets, as well as in-depth analysis and forecasts about future trends.

Timeline of the largest PV power stations in the world
Year(a)Name of PV power stationCountryCapacity
MW
1982LugoUnited States1
1985Carrisa PlainUnited States5.6
2005Bavaria Solarpark (Mühlhausen)Germany6.3
2006Erlasee Solar ParkGermany11.4
2008Olmedilla Photovoltaic ParkSpain60
2010Sarnia Photovoltaic Power PlantCanada97
2011Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar ParkChina200
2012Agua Caliente Solar ProjectUnited States290
2014Topaz Solar Farm(b)United States550
2015Longyangxia Dam Solar ParkChina850
2016Tengger Desert Solar ParkChina1547
2019Pavagada Solar ParkIndia2050
2020Bhadla Solar ParkIndia2245
Also see list of photovoltaic power stations and list of noteworthy solar parks
(a) year of final commissioning (b) capacity given in  MWAC otherwise in MWDC

Worldwide annual deployment
  •   2018: 103,000 MW (20.4%)
  •   2017: 95,000 MW (18.8%)
  •   2016: 76,600 MW (15.2%)
  •   2015: 50,909 MW (10.1%)
  •   2014: 40,134 MW (8.0%)
  •   2013: 38,352 MW (7.6%)
  •   2012: 30,011 MW (5.9%)
  •   2011: 30,133 MW (6.0%)
  •   2010: 17,151 MW (3.4%)
  •   2009: 7,340 MW (1.5%)
  •   2008: 6,661 MW (1.3%)
  •   before: 9,183 MW (1.8%)
Annual PV deployment as a %-share of global total capacity (estimate for 2018).[97][98]
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
2002
2006
2010
2014
2018
2022
Global annual installed capacity since 2002, in megawatts (hover with mouse over bar).

  annual deployment since 2002    2022: 268 GW (estimate) [99]

Worldwide cumulative

The worldwide growth of solar PV capacity was an exponential curve between 1992 and 2017. Tables below show global cumulative nominal capacity by the end of each year in megawatts, and the year-to-year increase in percent. In 2014, the global capacity was expected to grow by 33 percent from 139 to 185 GW. This corresponded to an exponential growth rate of 29 percent or about 2.4 years for current worldwide PV capacity to double. Exponential growth rate: P(t) = P0ert, where P0 is 139 GW, growth-rate r 0.29 (results in doubling time t of 2.4 years).

The following table contains data from multiple different sources. For 1992–1995: compiled figures of 16 main markets (see section All time PV installations by country), for 1996–1999: BP-Statistical Review of world energy (Historical Data Workbook)[100] for 2000–2013: EPIA Global Outlook on Photovoltaics Report[17]: 17 

1990s
 Year  CapacityA
MWp		 Δ%B Refs
1991 n.a. — C
1992 105 n.a. C
1993 130 24% C
1994 158 22% C
1995 192 22% C
1996 309 61% [100]
1997 422 37% [100]
1998 566 34% [100]
1999 807 43% [100]
2000 1,250 55% [100]
2000s
 Year  CapacityA
MWp		 Δ%B Refs
2001 1,615 27% [17]
2002 2,069 28% [17]
2003 2,635 27% [17]
2004 3,723 41% [17]
2005 5,112 37% [17]
2006 6,660 30% [17]
2007 9,183 38% [17]
2008 15,844 73% [17]
2009 23,185 46% [17]
2010 40,336 74% [17]
2010s
 Year  CapacityA
MWp		 Δ%B Refs
2011 70,469 75% [17]
2012 100,504 43% [17]
2013 138,856 38% [17]
2014 178,391 28% [97]
2015 221,988 24% [101]
2016 295,816 33% [101]
2017 388,550 31% [101]
2018 488,741 26% [101]
2019 586,421 20% [101]
2020 713,970 21% [102]
2020s
 Year  CapacityA
MWp		 Δ%B Refs
2021 849,473 19% [103]
2022 1,053,115 19%
Legend:
^A Worldwide, cumulative nameplate capacity in megawatt-peak MWp, (re-)calculated in DC power output.
^B annual increase of cumulative worldwide PV nameplate capacity in percent.
^C figures of 16 main markets, including Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, Mexico, European countries, and the United States.

Deployment by country
Further information: History of photovoltaic growth and Solar power by country
Grid parity for solar PV systems around the world
  Reached grid-parity before 2014
  Reached grid-parity after 2014
  Reached grid-parity only for peak prices
  U.S. states poised to reach grid-parity
Source: Deutsche Bank, as of February 2015

Number of countries with PV
capacities in the gigawatt-scale

Growing number of solar gigawatt-markets
  Over 1 GW
  • 2021 Argentina Pakistan Kazakhstan
    2020 Portugal Jordan Sweden Malaysia
    2019 Russia Hungary Denmark Vietnam Poland United Arab Emirates
    2018 Mexico Egypt Ukraine
    2017 Philippines Turkey Israel Brazil
    2016 Chile Austria
    2015 Taiwan Pakistan South Africa
    2014 Thailand Netherlands Switzerland
    2013 Canada Romania
    2012 Bulgaria Greece India United Kingdom
    2011 Australia China
    2010 Belgium Czech Republic France
    2009 Italy
    2008 Spain United States
    2004 Japan Germany
  Over 10 GW
  • 2022 Poland
    2021 Brazil
    2020 Spain Vietnam France Netherlands
    2019 South Korea
    2018 Australia
    2017 India
    2016 United Kingdom
    2013 United States Japan China
    2011 Italy
    2010 Germany
  Over 100 GW
  • 2021 United States[104]                  
    2017 China                  

IEA and other sources (1992-2015)

IRENA (2000-2020)
Solar Photovoltaic Capacity (MW) by Country/Region each year[128]
ISO_A3Country/Region 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
AFG Afghanistan00000000000.10.116.116.818.418.920.22221.631.130.5
ALB Albania00.10.20.20.20.20.20.20.20.30.40.60.70.80.91.11111416.9
DZA Algeria000000000000001.149.1219400423423423
ASM American Samoa0000000000002.42.42.42.43.84.25.15.15.1
AND Andorra000000000000000.20.20.20.51.122.9
AGO Angola000.20.20.40.60.82.74.85.37.17.79.610.81212.913.413.413.413.413.4
AIA Anguilla0000000000000.10.11.11.12.12.11.11.51.5
ATG Antigua and Barbuda0000000000.10.10.30.30.40.43.43.53.98.38.312.5
ARG Argentina000000000001.26.28.38.38.68.88.8191442761
ARM Armenia000000000000000012.417.35095
ABW Aruba00000000000.10.311.64.96.16.16.16.16.16.1
AUS Australia2529343946526170823291,0882,4703,7964,5655,2845,9436,6867,3528,62312,96717,342
AUT Austria57923272122.424.230.148.988.81743376267859371,0961,2691,4551,7022,220
AZE Azerbaijan00000000.10.10.10.31112.44.824.928.434.935.435.4
BHS Bahamas (the)00000000.10.10.20.30.40.60.61.31.31.51.41.42.32.2
BHR Bahrain0000000000000.50.555666.39.39.8
BGD Bangladesh0000.61.42.546.611.118.332.342.666.194119145161185201239276
BRB Barbados00.10.10.10.10.20.20.60.60.811.31.51.76.592021223550
BLR Belarus00000000000000464780154154160
BEL Belgium001112220623861,0071,9792,6472,9023,0153,1323,3293,6214,0004,6375,646
BLZ Belize00.10.10.10.20.30.30.40.50.60.70.81.91.92.63.93.93.94.26.36.6
BEN Benin000000000000000.21.22.92.92.92.92.9
BES Islands0000000000000000.32.24.55.66.66.6
BTN Bhutan000000.10.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.3
BOL Bolivia (Plurinational State of)0.30.40.50.70.80.81.11.42.42.833.44.15.55.55.55.57.569.9120120
BIH Bosnia and Herzegovina0000.10.20.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.31.37.28.214.11618.222.434.9
BWA Botswana00000000000.10.21.61.71.92.23.33.43.96.16.1
VGB Virgin Islands (British)00000000000.10.10.10.10.10.20.20.20.20.20.2
BRA Brazil0000.70.70.70.70.70.80.80.96.16.612.520.745.61281,2072,4354,6137,879
BRN Brunei Darussalam00000000001.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.4
BGR Bulgaria000000000.12251541,0131,0201,0261,0291,0281,0361,0331,0481,073
BFA Burkina Faso0.50.50.50.71.11.21.21.62.333.65.85.86.3781046.861.862.462.4
BDI Burundi000000.10.20.30.40.40.60.81.62.62.83.14.15.15.15.15.1
CPV Cabo Verde00000000005.55.55.65.75.86.16.26.27.57.67.6
KHM Cambodia0.10.20.30.30.40.50.71.61.92.12.23.94.75.99.212.218.429.428.8124208
CMR Cameroon0000.10.10.10.10.20.20.512.42.83.65.67.4911.614.214.214.3
CAN Canada79101214182229381072496287661,2101,8432,5192,6652,9323,0953,3273,342
CYM Cayman Islands (the)00000000000000002.88.89.911.112.7
CAF Central African Republic (the)000000.10.10.10.10.10.10.20.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.3
TCD Chad00000000000000.10.10.20.20.20.20.20.2
CHL Chile0000000000002152215761,1251,8092,1372,5553,106
CHN China33.53856.566.676.61411601992534151,0223,1086,71817,74828,38843,53877,788130,801175,016204,575253,834
TWN Taiwan0.10.20.30.50.611.42.45.69.534.61302314106368841,2451,7682,7384,1505,817
COL Colombia0.6111.11.11.11.21.21.21.31.31.31.31.41.41.51.511.388.492.4110
COD Congo (the Democratic Republic of the)0000000000000.10.40.60.73.25.219.919.919.9
COG Congo (the)000000000000.10.10.20.50.50.50.60.70.70.7
COK Cook Islands (the)00000000000000.71.73.24.14.167.37.3
CRI Costa Rica0.20.61.11.722.63.23.84.656.26.89.912.716.722.523.6282848.456.8
CIV Côte d'Ivoire00.10.10.10.10.20.20.41.11.41.61.722.93.85.15.18.313.113.113.1
HRV Croatia0000000000.30.30.34193347.855.86067.784.884.8
CUB Cuba0000000000000.6112223.83765.5128159163
CUW Curaçao0000000000000.13.17.710.111.111.111.911.911.9
CYP Cyprus00001111247101735647684110118151200
CZE Czechia0.10.10.20.30.40.60.8439.54651,7271,9132,0222,0642,0672,0752,0682,0702,0752,0862,073
DNK Denmark11222333357174025716077828519069981,0801,300
DJI Djibouti0000000000000.30.30.30.30.40.40.40.40.4
DMA Dominica0.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.20.20.20.20.20.20.20.20.20.60.60.30.30.3
DOM Dominican Republic (the)0000000000001.68.915.325.871.1103203196267
ECU Ecuador0000000000000.13.926.425.525.625.626.727.627.6
EGY Egypt0.10.50.60.60.60.60.60.70.91.3151515151525391607441,6271,659
SLV El Salvador000000000000012.512.523.624.8121198403429
GNQ Equatorial Guinea000000000000000000000.1
ERI Eritrea000000000000007.97.98.210.217.72022.2
EST Estonia0000000000.10.10.20.41.53.36.5101531.9121130
SWZ Eswatini000000.10.20.20.20.30.60.70.80.80.80.80.90.90.90.90.9
ETH Ethiopia000000000000.31.13.39.19.91412.512.312.320.2
E28 European Union (28)   178   276   360   5961 3052 2813 2355 00610 42016 81630 14853 39371 20680 65987 19095 370101 490107 073115 223131 813150 502
FLK Falkland Islands (the) [Malvinas]0000000000000000.10.10.10.10.10.1
FRO Faroe Islands (the)00000000000000000000.30.3
FJI Fiji0.10.10.10.100.10.10.10.20.20.30.30.91.41.93.35.37.19.59.59.7
FIN Finland2333445566778911173982140222391
GUF French Guiana0.10.10.10.10.10.20.20.20.62.523.235.936.336.636.746.546.546.646.746.754.9
PYF French Polynesia0.50.70.811.21.51.81.92.12.42.91113.516.924.627.931.635.237.44141
FRA France778911131526802771,0443,0044,3595,2776,0347,1387,7028,6109,69110,79511,724
GAB Gabon000.10.10.10.10.20.20.41.41.41.41.41.41.41.41.41.41.41.41.4
GMB Gambia (the)000.10.20.40.60.71.21.41.61.81.9222.12.22.22.22.22.22.2
GEO Georgia00000000000000000.30.30.30.70.7
DEU Germany1141952604351,1052,0562,8994,1706,12010,56418,00425,91434,07536,70837,89839,22240,67742,29145,15649,04553,781
GHA Ghana00000000000003.55.731.437.947.180.987.794.2
GRC Greece0111115912462026121,5362,5792,5962,6042,6042,6062,6522,8343,247
GRL Greenland0000000000000000000.10.10.1
GRD Grenada000000000.10.10.20.30.30.50.712.22.32.73.33.3
GLP Guadeloupe000000.41.22.53.710.922.428.56066.666.667.16870708185.4
GUM Guam00000000000.10.10.30.81.43234.734.734.834.834.8
GTM Guatemala0.10.10.20.20.20.20.30.30.40.50.60.81.52.610.493.393.399.3101101101
GIN Guinea0000000000.60.60.60.63.43.413.313.313.313.413.413.4
GNB Guinea-Bissau0000000000000000.30.30.31.21.21.2
GUY Guyana000000000.10.10.20.9111.11.523.56.38.48.4
HTI Haiti00000000000.50.61.11.41.51.91.92.42.62.62.6
HND Honduras1.61.822.12.42.72.93.23.23.53.74.55.25.25.2393414454514516516
HUN Hungary00000000.411241235891722353447281,4001,953
ISL Iceland0000000000000.60.91.12.53.54.35.377
IND India1.15.56.77.97.811.69.625.127.739.465.45639791,4463,4445,3659,65117,92327,12534,86138,983
IDN Indonesia0.30.60.91.31.31.42.25.79.513.414.61726.438.441.678.688.497.569.1155172
IRN Iran (Islamic Republic of)0000000.10.10.10.20.40.40.419.49.443.2184286346430
IRQ Iraq000000000000029.536.536.536.536.5216216216
IRL Ireland0000000000.60.70.80.911.62.45.915.724.231.140.2
ISR Israel0000011.31.8324.569.91902374206707668669691,0701,1902,230
ITA Italy192022263134451104831,2643,59213,13116,78518,18518,59418,90119,28319,68220,10820,86521,594
JAM Jamaica00.10.10.10.20.20.20.40.60.711.51.82.14.16.527.555.555.592.592.5
JPN Japan3304536378601,1321,4221,7081,9192,1442,6273,6184,9146,63213,59923,33934,15042,04049,50056,16263,19268,665
JOR Jordan0000000000000.10.10.25.52964068091,1011,359
KAZ Kazakhstan000000.10.10.71.11.32.63.6615.876.31441571754901,1501,719
KEN Kenya000000000.20.20.21.43.47.216.730.831.939.1105106106
KIR Kiribati0.10.10.10.10.20.20.20.30.30.30.40.40.50.50.82.32.92.92.92.92.9
PRK Korea (the Democratic People's Republic of)0000.30.30.40.40.50.50.611.72.36.11122.831.534.837.841.841.8
KOR Korea (the Republic of)455691436813575246507301,0241,5552,4813,6154,5025,8358,09911,95214,575
XKO Kosovo0000000000000000.126.66.61010
KWT Kuwait00000000000000.123.230.53243.143.343.3
LAO Lao People's Democratic Republic (the)00000000000000.52.93.33.621.621.621.621.6
LVA Latvia0000000000000.20.20.20.20.70.723.37.2
LBN Lebanon00000000000.30.50.81.94.811.424.637.456.578.778.7
LSO Lesotho00000000000000.40.40.40.40.40.40.40.4
LBR Liberia0000000000000000.10.12.42.62.62.6
LBY Libya0000.20.71.21.72.22.73.23.74.24.94.94.94.94.95.15.15.15.1
LTU Lithuania000000000.10.10.10.376869697073.88282148
LUX Luxembourg00.21.614.223.623.623.723.924.626.429.540.774.795110116122128131160195
MDG Madagascar00000.10.10.30.40.81.11.522.6579111333.434.233
MWI Malawi0000000.10.20.30.50.71.82.75.47.712.112.119.222.722.724
MYS Malaysia00000000.50.50.50.50.525.197.11662292793705368821,493
MDV Maldives0000000.10.10.10.20.30.31.41.84.14.16.89.59.513.215.2
MLI Mali0.10.30.40.81.41.72.53.43.93.96.49.915.715.716.217.217.619.319.319.369.5
MLT Malta000000.10.10.10.20.90.85.315.728.554.674.893.6112131154184
MHL Marshall Islands (the)00000.10.10.10.10.20.30.30.30.50.7111.61.61.61.61.6
MTQ Martinique0000002.547.314.226.448606262.565.466.968.47175.876
MRT Mauritania00000000000001818.218.234.834.886.887.587.5
MUS Mauritius0000000000001.42.518.218.727.328.867.583.583.5
MYT Mayotte000000000.51.88.312.413.113.113.213.213.315.115.115.115.1
MEX Mexico14151616161616191925293960821161733896742,5414,4265,630
FSM Micronesia (Federated States of)0.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.20.20.50.50.50.50.70.70.71.31.31.91.91.9
MDA Moldova (the Republic of)00000000000000112.32.1355
MNG Mongolia0000.20.20.20.20.23.83.84.64.64.65551547.764.289.289.6
MNE Montenegro00000000.20.40.40.60.80.91.12.12.73.13.44.55.36.2
MSR Montserrat00000000000000000000.30.3
MAR Morocco6.777.78.49.11010.811.912.813.413.514.215.215.219.619.821.923.9194194194
MOZ Mozambique000000000000.51.54.97101315559595
MMR Myanmar00000000.10.10.20.41.42.84.26.320.83243.847.588.584.5
NAM Namibia11.21.51.61.61.61.92.433.64.27.411.114.616.5213674.892.5145145
NRU Nauru0000000000000.10.20.20.20.70.70.81.91.9
NPL Nepal00.30.611.41.91.81.623.84.38.59.310.811.513.413.654.352.550.760.5
NLD Netherlands (the)13212646505153545969901492876501,0071,5262,1352,9114,6087,17710,213
NCL New Caledonia0.20.20.20.30.30.30.30.50.50.62.73.23.23.23.46.88.826.228.661.880
NZL New Zealand000000033333482237537090116142
NIC Nicaragua00000000000001.41.41.41.4141416.416.4
NER Niger (the)0.50.60.60.70.811.11.11.21.22.13456789272727
NGA Nigeria00000000000015.215.415.61718.418.919.12828.4
NIU Niue0000000000.10.10.10.10.10.30.30.30.30.30.90.9
MKD North Macedonia00000000000247151716.716.720.626.294.4
NOR Norway666777888.38.79.19.51011131526.744.968.4120152
OMN Oman00000000000000.70.72.22.28.28.38.7109
PAK Pakistan00000000.11.13.79.318.645.8101165266589655679713737
PLW Palau000000000.30.30.30.60.70.70.90.91.31.31.71.71.7
PSE Palestine, State of000000000000.40.60.631225354081.8117
PAN Panama0.20.40.50.60.60.80.811.31.51.92.433.76.149.393147193198198
PNG Papua New Guinea00.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.91.21.21.31.31.3
PRY Paraguay00000000000000.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.1
PER Peru0.91.933.54.355.86.889.812.517.5103109134139146298325331331
PHL Philippines (the)0000222222222327.71737849089149731,048
POL Poland000000000001.11.32.427.21081872875621,5393,936
PRT Portugal111222324591151341722382964154475135796679011,025
PRI Puerto Rico0000000003.83.83.86.957.972.988.4133165165165158
QAT Qatar000000000000.70.72.3445.15.15.15.15.1
REU Réunion00000.30.535.81042.589.3131153156167187186188190191191
ROM Romania000000000.10.10.11417611,2931,3261,3721,3741,3861,3981,387
RUS Russian Federation (the)0000000000000.11.3561.376.32255351,2761,428
RWA Rwanda00000000.30.30.30.30.30.50.9101419.227.3313131
WSM Samoa00000000000000.23.14.87.213.513.513.513.5
STP São Tomé and Príncipe00000000000000.10.10.10.20.30.30.30.3
SAU Saudi Arabia0.40.40.40.40.40.40.40.40.40.42.42.913.622.524.324.324.334.434.4359359
SEN Senegal11.11.31.41.61.71.822.32.63.34.85.979942107148171171
SRB Serbia000000.70.90.92.333.33.77.19.713.415.817.218.420.823.428.8
SYC Seychelles00000000000000.311.41.92.63.73.73.8
SLE Sierra Leone0000000000.10.10.20.20.40.40.40.53.84.44.44.4
SGP Singapore000000000.31.534.67.811.825.345.796.6116160272329
SVK Slovakia000000000019496513533533533533528472590593
SVN Slovenia11111111141257142187223238233247247264267
SLB Solomon Islands000000000000.80.80.81.11.12.22.52.52.52.5
SOM Somalia000000000000000.10.24.76.97.17.122.5
ZAF South Africa000000000025.711.32621,0631,2521,9743,1474,4014,4055,490
SSD South Sudan0000000000000.20.20.20.20.40.40.60.60.6
ESP Spain1013172233521304943,3843,4233,8734,2834,5694,6904,6974,7044,7134,7234,7648,97311,785
LKA Sri Lanka0.30.91.62.32.93.64.24.95.66.379.69.71319.631.262.5131185215230
BLM Saint Barthélemy000000000000000000000
KNA Saint Kitts and Nevis00000000000000.41.41.41.91.91.91.91.9
LCA Saint Lucia0000000000000.10.10.10.80.80.83.83.83.8
MAF Saint Martin (French part)00000000000001.41.62.61.80.10.10.50.5
VCT Saint Vincent and the Grenadines0000000000000.10.40.40.81.21.31.31.91.9
SDN Sudan (the)00000.10.20.20.40.50.92.33.588811.112.312.612.617.917.9
SUR Suriname00000000000.20.30.70.96.26.26.77.78.88.89.4
SWE Sweden333444568911122443601041532444287141,417
CHE Switzerland161820222428303749791252234377561,0611,3941,6641,9062,1732,4982,943
SYR Syrian Arab Republic (the)000000000000000000.11.42.52.5
TZA Tanzania, the United Republic of000000000000.31.23.711.212.818.522.126.526.623.6
THA Thailand00000030.432.332.43748.678.73778241,2991,4202,4462,6972,9622,9832,983
TMP East Timor00000.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.70.70.70.70.70.70.70.7
TGO Togo00000000000.10.30.40.40.81.72.12.53.55.55.6
TKL Tokelau000000000000111111111
TON Tonga0.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.10.11.11.71.72.73.26.26.26.26.2
TTO Trinidad and Tobago0.30.70.91.21.71.822.12.32.52.82.82.82.83.13.63.63.6333
TUN Tunisia0.811.11.11.21.21.21.21.31.41.82.95.69.517.127.54150.863.78094.9
TUR Turkey0.10.30.611.522.533.74.75.76.711.717.7402498333,4215,0635,9956,667
TCA Turks and Caicos Islands (the)000000000000000000.20.40.90.9
TUV Tuvalu0000000000.20.20.20.20.20.32.12.22.22.22.22.3
UGA Uganda0.20.81.11.72.335.47.711.714.214.916.217.318.520222443.666.87777.3
GBR United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the)234681114182327951,0001,7532,9375,5289,60111,91412,76013,07313,34613,462
UKR Ukraine00000000002.51883727488198419551,2002,0035,9367,331
ARE United Arab Emirates (the)00000000010.110.812.813.225.833.233.440.42554981,8182,439
URY Uruguay000000000.10.10.10.40.61.13.2610.5243248254258
VIR Virgin Islands (U.S.)000000000000.50.60.959.29.25555
USA United States of America (the)1762132552933634936989741,1531,6142,9095,1728,13711,75915,98421,68432,95841,35749,81259,06873,814
UZB Uzbekistan000000000000011.11.12.33.23.53.53.5
VUT Vanuatu000000000000.10.20.20.30.41.82.74.14.34.2
VEN Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)00000000001.822.32.33.44.54.54.545.35.3
VNM Viet Nam00.10.20.40.71.93.43.43.43.54.54.54.54.55.35.35.381054,89816,504
YEM Yemen000000000.9111.31.42.456080100250250253
ZMB Zambia00000000000000.10.10.10.10.11.296.499.4
ZWE Zimbabwe000000000000.20.922.74.35.16.310.611.117
WORLD TOTAL9871,3691,7982,5624,3586,8309,32913,51325,15039,65970,482125,593172,860217,837262,783318,307396,289496,651598,134715,685860,175

See also

Notes

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