Foreign relations of Djibouti

Foreign relations of Djibouti are managed by the Djiboutian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation. Djibouti maintains close ties with the governments of Somalia, Ethiopia, France and the United States. It is likewise an active participant in African Union, United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and Arab League affairs.

Politics of Djibouti
Arab League Member State of the Arab League
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Nations with which Djibouti has diplomatic relations.

Bilateral relations

Africa
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Algeria 10 October 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 October 1978 when has been accredited Ambassador of Algeria to Djibouti (resident in Addis Ababa) Mr. Mohamed Lamine Allouane.[1]
 Angola 24 January 2022 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 2022[2]
 Burkina Faso 16 December 2013 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 December 2013 when Ambassador of Burkina Faso (resident in Addis Ababa) Minata Samate, has presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Ismaël Omar Guelleh.[3]
 Cameroon 22 January 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 January 1978[4]
 Comoros 14 February 2016 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 February 2016 when Ambassador of Comoros Mr. Assoumani Youssouf Mondoha, presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Ismail Omar Guelleh.[5]
 Democratic Republic of Congo 19 October 2023 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 2023 when Ambassador of Djibouti to DRC Mr. Mohamed Bourhan Ali has presented his credentials to President Félix Tshisekedi.[6]
 Cote d'Ivoire 28 April 2016 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 April 2016[7]
 Egypt22 July 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1977, when the first Ambassador of Egypt to Djibouti, Mohamed Samy Heiba, presented his credentials to President Hassan Gouled Aptidon[8]
 Equatorial Guinea 9 October 2018 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 2018 when Ambassador of Djibouti (resident in Addis Ababa) Mr. Mohamed Idriss Farah has presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.[9]
 Eritrea11 July 1993[10] See Djibouti–Eritrea relations
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Asmara.
  • Eritrea has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Ethiopia1977 See Djibouti–Ethiopia relations
 Gambia 1 July 2021 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 2021[11]
 Guinea 7 August 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 August 1978 when Ambassador of Guinea Mr. Iebel Combassa, presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Mr. Hassan Gouled Aptidon.[12]
 Kenya25 March 1981 See Djibouti–Kenya relations
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Nairobi.
  • Kenya has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Mauritania 15 February 2017 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 February 2017 when Ambassador of Mauritania to Djibouti (resident in Addis Ababa) M. Bass Abal Abasse presented his letters of credentials to President of Djibouti Ismail Omar Guelleh.[13]
 Mauritius 12 December 2016 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 December 2016[14][15]
 Morocco14 March 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 March 1978[16]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Rabat.
  • Morocco has a consulate in Djibouti City.
 Namibia 15 May 2017 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 May 2017 when Ambassador of Namibia Mme Monica Nashandi, presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Ismail Omar Guelleh.[17]
 Rwanda21 January 2011 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 January 2011 when Ambassador of Djibouti to Rwanda Mr. Aden Houssein Abdilahi presented his credentials to President Paul Kagame.[18]
  • In March 2016, both countries presidents met to discuss establishing diplomatic relations and possible ways of developing bilateral ties.
 Senegal 24 March 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 March 1978, when first Ambassador of Senegal to Djibouti Latyr Kamara presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Hassan Gouled Aptidon[19]
 Seychelles 12 September 2023 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 September 2023.[20]
 Somalia22 July 1977 See Djibouti–Somalia relations
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Mogadishu.
  • Somalia has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 South Africa7 February 1996 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 1996.[21]
 South Sudan 11 February 2012 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 February 2012[22]
 SudanJuly 1977
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Khartoum.
  • Sudan has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Tanzania March 1986 Both countries established diplomatic relations in March 1986 when first ambassador of Tanzania to Djibouti General Major M.S.H. Sarakikya presented his credentials to President Hassan Gouled Aptidon.[23]
 Togo 14 February 2016 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 February 2016 when Ambassador of Togo Mr. Ekpao Nolaki, presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Ismail Omar Guelleh.[24]

Americas
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Argentina27 August 1993
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1993.[25]
 Brazil22 October 1996 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 October 1996[26]
  • Brazil and Djibouti established diplomatic relations in 1996. In 2012, an Agreement on Technical Cooperation between the two countries was signed cooperation focus on areas of infrastructure, agriculture, environment, health, education, national solidarity, scientific research, and social development. A Brazilian company was building a port in the Djibouti funding from the United Arab Emirates.[27]
 Canada13 June 1978
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 June 1978 when the first Ambassador of Canada to Djibouti presented his credentials.[28] Canada also has an Honorary Consul in Djibouti City. Both Montreal and Ottawa are home to organized Djiboutian diaspora communities, and there is an active community of returned Djiboutian-Canadians in Djibouti.[29]
 Colombia 30 September 1988 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 September 1988[30]
 Cuba20 November 1998 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 November 1998[31]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Havana.
  • Cuba has a consulate in Djibouti City.[32]
 Dominica9 January 2018
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 January 2018.[33]
 Dominican Republic 8 March 2011 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 March 2011[34]
 Ecuador 20 November 2015 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 November 2015[35]
 Guatemala 28 February 2018 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 February 2018[36]
 Mexico22 June 1989Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 1989[37]
  • Djibouti is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.
  • Mexico is accredited to Djibouti from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and maintains an honorary consulate in Djibouti City.[38]
 Nicaragua 9 September 2019 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 September 2019[39]
 Panama17 March 2010
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 2010[40]
 Paraguay 22 July 2010 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 July 2010[41]
 Peru 28 February 2018 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 February 2018[42]
 Saint Kitts and Nevis 20 February 2020 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 February 2020[43]
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines7 August 2008
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 August 2008.[44]
 Suriname 21 February 2020 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 February 2020[45]
 United States27 June 1977 See Djibouti-United States relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 June 1977.[46]

  • Djibouti is a strategic partner of the United States in the Global War on Terrorism.
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and a consulate-general in New York City.
  • United States has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Uruguay 12 February 2008 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 February 2008[47]
 Venezuela 11 October 2006 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 October 2006[48]

Asia
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Armenia22 May 2019 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 2019.[49]
 Azerbaijan22 October 1996 See Azerbaijan–Djibouti relations
  • Diplomatic relations between Azerbaijan and Djibouti were established on 22 October 1996.[50]
 Bahrain 6 February 1983 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 February 1983[51]
 Bangladesh 25 September 1983 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 September 1983[52]
 Brunei Darussalam 9 November 2012 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 November 2012.[53]
 Cambodia 28 April 2016 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 April 2016[54]
 China8 January 1979[55] See China–Djibouti relations
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Beijing.
  • China has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Georgia 22 November 2000 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 November 2000[56]
 India1977 See Djibouti–India relations
  • Djibouti has an embassy in New Delhi.
  • India has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Indonesia1979
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1979, Djibouti is represented in Indonesia through its embassy in Tokyo, Japan. Indonesia is accredited to Djibouti through its embassy in Addis Ababa.[57]
 Iran1978
  • In July 1998, Iran and Djibouti signed a letter of understanding to consolidate their political, economic, trade, and industrial ties, but in January 2016 Djibouti cut off all diplomatic relations with Iran due to tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran. The two countries restored diplomatic ties on 22 September 2023.[58]
 Israel
  • Djibouti and Israel does not maintain formal relations since Djibouti does not recognize Israel as a sovereign state.
 Japan24 August 1978 See Djibouti–Japan relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 August 1978.[59]

  • Djibouti has an embassy in Tokyo.
  • Japan has an embassy in Djibouti City.
  • Japan's Maritime Self-Defense Force(MSDF) maintains an overseas military base in Djibouti since 2011. Japanese forces in Djibouti is tasked to escort ships and combat piracy on the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea.
 Kazakhstan 5 May 2010 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 May 2010[60]
 Kuwait31 October 1982 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 October 1982[61]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Kuwait City.
  • Kuwait has a consulate in Djibouti City.
 Kyrgyzstan 3 June 2015 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 June 2015[62]
 Lebanon 11 March 1981 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1981 when first Ambassador of Lebanon to Djibouti (resident in Khartoum) Mr. Ibrahim Marouche presented his credentials to President M. Hassan Gouled Aptidon.[63]
 Malaysia 1998 Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1998.[64]
 Maldives7 April 2008
 Mongolia 20 January 2016 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 January 2016[66]
   Nepal 14 July 2017 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 2017[67]
 Oman 16 November 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 1977[68]
 Pakistan 27 June 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 June 1977[69]
 Palestine
  • Palestine has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Philippines26 February 1998 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 1998[70]
  • Djibouti is accredited to the Philippines from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.
 Qatar
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Doha.
  • Qatar has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Saudi Arabia7 December 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 December 1977[71]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Riyadh.
  • Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Singapore15 September 1983
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 1983.[72] Djibouti is accredited to Singapore from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.[73]
 South Korea7 December 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 December 1977[74]
  • Bilateral trade in 2011 amounted to $47,390,000 in exports, and $9,000 in imports.[75]
 Sri Lanka 16 November 2015 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 2015.[76]
 Tajikistan 17 March 2017 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 2017.[77]
 Turkey25 June 1979[78]See also Djibouti–Turkey relations
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Ankara.[79]
  • Turkey has an embassy in Djibouti City.[79]
  • Trade volume between the two countries was 252 million USD in 2019.[79]
 Turkmenistan4 July 2017
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 July 2017.[80]
 United Arab Emirates16 November 1977
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.
  • United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Uzbekistan
  • Djibouti recognized the independence of Uzbekistan on 6 January 1992. However both countries have not yet established diplomatic relations.[81]
 Vietnam30 April 1991
 Yemen1978 See Djibouti - Yemen relations

Relations between Yemen and Djibouti are good, and cooperation takes place on many levels. A causeway between the two countries has been proposed.

  • Djibouti has an embassy in Sana'a.
  • Yemen has an embassy in Djibouti City.

Europe
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Albania 2 April 1980 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 1980[83]
 Andorra17 March 2009
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 2009[84]
 Austria 18 January 1983 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 January 1983[85]
 Belarus 26 August 2013 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 August 2013[86]
 Belgium19 June 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 June 1978, when Jacques Melsens, ambassador from the Kingdom of Belgium, presented his letters of credence to President Hassan Gouled Aptidon.[87]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Brussels.
  • Belgium has an honorary consulate in Djibouti City.
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 17 March 2009 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 2009[88]
 Bulgaria 13 February 2007 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 February 2007[89]
 Croatia22 May 2017
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 2017.[90]
 Czech Republic8 December 1977
  • Czech Republic has an honorary consulate in Djibouti City.[91]
 Denmark1979
  • Denmark is accredited to Djibouti from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[92]
  • Djibouti is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.[93]
 Estonia 16 June 2005 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 June 2005[94]
 Finland14 March 2007 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 March 2007[95]
  • Finland is accredited to Djibouti from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[96]
  • Djibouti is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.[97]
 France6 July 1977 See Djibouti–France relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 July 1977.[98]

  • Djibouti has an embassy in Paris.
  • France has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Germany23 January 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 1978[99]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Berlin.
  • Germany has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Greece1981
  • Greece has an honorary consulate in Djibouti City.
  • Greek-Djiboutian relations are particularly friendly. The Greek community in Djibouti has significantly contributed to that.[100]
 Iceland19 July 2005 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 July 2005[101]
  • Iceland is accredit to Djibouti from its embassy in Kampala, Uganda.[102]
 Ireland6 July 2001 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 July 2001[103]
  • Ireland is accredit to Djibouti from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[104][105]
 Latvia 30 March 2012 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 2012.[106]
 Lithuania 9 June 1999 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 June 1999[107]
 Malta26 June 2018
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 June 2018.[108]
 Moldova9 October 2020
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 2020.[109]
 Monaco 1 December 2011 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 2011[110]
 Montenegro6 October 2011
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 2011.[111]
 Kosovo22 March 2013
  • Djibouti officially recognised the independence of the Republic of Kosovo on 8 May 2010.[112] On 22 March 2013 Djibouti and Kosovo established diplomatic relations and vowed to strengthen bilateral co-operation with one another.[113]
 Latvia30 March 2012
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 2012.[114]
 Lithuania9 June 1999
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 June 1999.[115]
 North Macedonia 12 June 1997 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 June 1997[116]
 Poland 24 February 1980 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 February 1980[117]
 Portugal 29 March 1996 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 1996[118]
 Romania18 May 1978
 Russia3 April 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April 1978[120]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Moscow.
  • Russia has an embassy in Djibouti City.
 Serbia11 July 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 July 1978[121]
  • Serbia has an honorary consulate in Djibouti City.[122]
 Slovakia 22 November 2000 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 November 2000[123]
 Slovenia 14 December 2006 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 2006[124]
 Spain25 June 1979[125] See Djibouti–Spain relations
  • Djibouti is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Paris, France.
  • Spain is accredited to Djibouti from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
 Sweden20 February 1980 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 February 1980, when first ambassador of Sweden to Djibouti M. Bror Arne Lennart Helleryd presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Hassan Gouled Aptidon[126]
  • Djibouti is accredited to Sweden from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.[127]
  • Sweden is accredited to Djibouti from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[128]
  Switzerland23 December 1982 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 December 1982[129]
  • Djibouti has an embassy in Geneva.
  • Switzerland has an honorary consulate in Djibouti City.
 Ukraine 17 March 2009 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 2009[130]
 United Kingdom25 January 1978
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 1978, when first Ambassador of the United Kingdom to Djibouti Mr. Benjamin Strachan presented his letters of credentials to President of Djibouti Hassan Gouled Aptidon[131]

Oceania
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Australia
  • Djibouti is accredited to Australia through its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.[132]
 Fiji 16 September 2010 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 September 2010[133]
 New Zealand
  • Djibouti is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.[134]

International organisations

Djibouti is a member of the African Union, Arab League, La Francophonie, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, and the United Nations.

In 1996, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), a developmental organisation of seven countries in East Africa, established its headquarters in Djibouti City. IGAD's mandate is for regional cooperation and economic integration.

After the terror attacks of 11 September 2001, Djibouti joined the Global War on Terror. It is now home to the Camp Lemonnier military compound.

Djibouti is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).

See also

Notes
  1. Slimane Chikh (1980). Le Maghreb et l'Afrique subsaharienne (in French). Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique. p. 10.
  2. "Francisco da Cruz apresenta as cartas credenciais ao Presidente do Djibouti".
  3. "Présentation de lettres de créance : l'ambassadeur Minata Samate prend fonction auprès de la république de Djibouti". le faso.net (in French). 19 December 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
  4. ARR, Arab Report and Record. Arab Report and Record., 1978. p. 44.
  5. "Le Président de la République reçoit les Lettres de Créance du nouvel Ambassadeur d'Ethiopie à Djibouti". presidence.dj (in French). 15 February 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  6. "Six nouveaux ambassadeurs présentent leurs lettres de créance au Président Tshisekedi". Agence Congolaise de Presse (in French). 20 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  7. d'Ivoire, Côte (28 April 2016). "Diplomatic Relations Between Côte d'Ivoire and Djibouti as of 28 Apr. 2016 (UN Digital Library)".
  8. Cairo Press Review. 1977. p. 9.
  9. "S. E. Obiang Nguema Mbasogo se reúne con el Embajador de Yibuti". guineaecuatorialpress.com (in Spanish). 9 October 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
  10. Eritrea Update, August 1993-2. Provisional Government of Eritrea (EPLF), Mission to the USA and Canada.
  11. "The Gambia establishes diplomatic relations with Republics of Djibouti, Chad, Gabon and Angola (MFA of The Gambia)". Facebook.
  12. Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa Issues 1987-1997. United States. Joint Publications Research Service. 1978. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  13. "Remise des lettres de Créance de notre ambassadeur en République de Djibouti". Agence Mauritanienne d'information (in French). 15 February 2017. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
  14. "Etablissement des relations diplomatiques entre Djibouti et la République de Maurice (Agence Djiboutienne d'Information)".
  15. "Diplomatic Relations Between Republic of Djibouti and the Republic of Mauritius as of 12 Dec. 2016 (UN Digital Library)". 12 December 2016.
  16. "Inauguration de l'ambassade de la République de Djibouti à Rabat".
  17. "Le Président de la République reçoit les Lettres de Créances de 4 nouveaux ambassadeurs". presidence.dj (in French). 15 May 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  18. "New foreign envoys present credentials". The New Times. 22 January 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2023.
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  30. "Diplomatic Relations Between Colombia and Djibouti as of 30 Sept. 1988". United Nations Digital Library. 30 September 1988. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
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  32. sources, Independent Cuban journalist and other media. "Cuba News / Noticias - CubaNet News". www.cubanet.org. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
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  51. "تاريخ اقامة العلاقات الدبلوماسية". mofa.gov.bh (in Arabic). Retrieved 7 August 2023.
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  54. "Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Djibouti and the Kingdom of Cambodia". The Permanent Mission of the Republic of Djibouti to the United Nations. 28 April 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
  55. "Joint Communique Regarding The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between The People's Republic Of China And The Republic Of Djibouti (MFA PR of China)".
  56. "Diplomatic relations between Djibouti and Georgia as of 22 Nov. 2000". United Nations Digital Library. 22 November 2000. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
  57. "KBRI Addis Ababa - Djibouti". Kemlu.go.id. Archived from the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
  58. "Following a meeting between the FM of the IR of #Iran & the Republic of #Djibouti ,on the sidelines of the 78th Session of the #UN General Assembly, 🇮🇷& 🇩🇯, in accordance with the interests & aspirations of their two peoples, have decided to restore diplomatic relations". Retrieved 14 August 2023.
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  61. "TODAY IN KUWAIT'S HISTORY (Kuwait News Agency (KUNA)".
  62. "Список стран, с которыми КР установил дипломатические отношения". mfa.gov.kg (in Russian). Retrieved 14 August 2023.
  63. Le Mois en Afrique - Issues 180-185 (in French). Le Mois en Afrique. 1981. p. 158.
  64. "Wisma Putra congratulates the Republic of Djibouti on the auspicious occasion of its 44th Independence Day. Malaysia and Djibouti established diplomatic relations in 1998". Wisma Putra. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
  65. "COUNTRIES WITH WHICH THE REPUBLIC OF MALDIVES HAS ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS" (PDF).
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References

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