Proposed Illyrian vocabulary

This article contains information about Illyrian vocabulary. No Illyrian texts survive, so sources for identifying Illyrian words have been identified by Hans Krahe[1] as being of four kinds: inscriptions, glosses of Illyrian words in classical texts, names—including proper names (mostly inscribed on tombstones), toponyms and river names—and Illyrian loanwords in other languages. The last category has proven particularly contentious. The names occur in sources that range over more than a millennium, including numismatic evidence, as well as posited original forms of placenames.[1] The Messapian language, which may be related, does have a small attested corpus, but it is not in this page's scope due to the uncertainty about its relationship to Illyrian.

Proposed etymologies

Illyrian lemmas

This is a list of lemmas explicitly mentioned as Illyrian by classical authors.

LemmaAttestationEnglish meaningPIE etymologyProposed cognates
bra (βρα) Hesychius:[2]

<βρα>· ἀδελφοί, ὑπὸ Ἰλλυρίων

 "brother" PIE *bʰréh₂tēr Alb. vëlla/vllâ "brother", Germ. "Bruder", Eng. "brother"
deuádai (Δευάδαι)Hesychius:[3]

<Δευάδαι>· οἱ Σάτοι, παρὰ Ἰλλυρίων

 "satyrs"PIE *dʰu̯ésmiAlb. dash "ram", Skt. dhūnoti "he shakes", Gk. thýein "to rage, seethe", théeion "sulfur vapor", Eng. dizzy, Paeonian Dýalos "Dionysos", Lat. furere "to rage", belua "wild animal", Old Ir. dásacht "rage, fury", Lith. dvėsti "to croak, perish, die (animals)", dvelksmas "breath, waft, aura", Hitt. tuhhai "to gasp", Rus. dɨhánije "breath, waft", duh "spirit, soul, mind, aura, ghost, wind" also "aliveness, breathing, willingness, meaningfulness, truthfulness", dušá "spirit, soul; heart, kindness, truthfulness".
*rhinos or rhinon (ῥινόν)Scholion to Odyssey 5.281:[4][5]

Οί δέ λέγουσιν Ἰλλυριούς ῥινόν λέγειν τήν άχλύν

 "fog, mist"PIE *h₁rinéHtiOld Alb. ren, mod. Alb. re, rê "cloud",[6] rij, rî 'to make humid'; further to Gk. (Lesbian) orínein "to move", Old Ch. Slav. rinǫti "to flow", Skt. riṇá-ti "to pour, let flow".
sabaia, sabaium, *sabaiusAmmianus Marcellinus:[7]

Est autem sabaia ex ordeo vel frumento in liquorem conversus paupertinus in Illyrico potus

Jerome:[8]

ζύθον, quod genus est potionis ex frugibus aquaque confectum et vulgo in Dalmatiae Pannoniaeque provinciis gentili barbaroque sermone appellatur sabaium

 "a type of beer"PIE *sap-Eng. sap, Lat. sapere "to taste", Skt. sabar "sap, juice, nectar", Avestan višāpa "having poisonous juices", Arm ham, Gk. hapalós "tender, delicate", Old Ch. Slav. sveptŭ "bee's honey"; borrowed into Lat. and from there into Ital. zabaione "frothy drink".
*sibina (La. sibyna ~ sybina; Gr. σιβυνη ~ σιβυνης ~ συβινη ~ ζιβυνη)Ennius (Annals, 5.540):[9]

Illyrii restant sicis sybinisque fodentes

Festius compared it to συβηνη (Gk.), "flute case", a word found in Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusai

 "a hunting spear", generally, "a spear", "pike"Alb. thupër "bar, stick" (Proto-Alb. *tsupina "stick"),[10][11] Pers. zôpîn, Arm. səvīn "a spit".
sica (Lat. sica ~ sicca)First mentioned in Ennius (Annals, 5.540):[9]

Illyrii restant sicis sybinisque fodentes

Of Illyrian soldiers;[12] later used in Pliny to describe Thracian implements

 "curved knife, dagger"PIE *ḱeh₁kʷeh₂Alb. thika 'knife',[13] Old Ir. cath "wise", Lat. cōs, (gen. cōtis) "whetstone", catus "sharp, acute", Eng. hone, Arm. sur "sharp", srem "to sharpen", Avest. saēni "pot", sal "slab, anvil", Skt. śitá "sharp"; borrowed into Lat. sicca "dagger", Lat. sicarii "assassins", Rus. siečiénije "cut, section; cross-section", siečj, rassiekatj "to whip, flog; to cut, shred, split, sever".

Messapic lemmas

Messapic language is oftentimes regarded as close to Illyrian[14] even though there is still no consensus among scholars regarding their proximity.[15][16] See Messapic lemmas for a list of Messapic words.

Non Illyrian words of possible Illyrian origin

Additionally to the words explicitly mentioned as Illyrian, scholars have extracted a list of non-Illyrian words that may have derived from Illyrian language.

Lemma Source language Notes English meaning PIE etymology Proposed cognates
bagaron (βαγαρόν) Laconian Greek[17] Hesychius:[17]

<βάγαρον>· χλιαρόν. Λάκωνες

Defined as "Gk.-Illyr." by Pokorny.[18]

 "warm" PIE *bʰōg- Alb. bukë "bread", Phrygian bekos "bread", Eng. bake, Lat. focus "hearth", Old Ir. goba "blacksmith", Gk. phōgein "to roast", Armenian bosor "red", bots "flame", Rus. bagrovɨj, bagrianɨj "crimson, saturated red, color of dark blood, purpur", bagriéc, bagrianiec "redness of someone's face, cheeks, of heated up material (e.g. metal), crimson cloth, fabric".
brisa Latin[19] Passed from Illyrian to Latin, ultimately of Thracian origin.[20]

Pokorny instead talks of a Messapic or Venetic origin of brisa.[18]

 "husk of grapes" Alb. bërsí "lees, dregs; mash", Eng. broth, Lat. defrutum "new wine boiled down", Welsh brwd "brewage", Old Ir. bruth "heat, wrath", Thrac. brỹtos "barley alcohol", brỹtion "wine must", Gk. apéphrysen "to seethe, boil", ? Lith. bręsti "to mature, ripe", brendimas "ripening", also brinkti "to swell", brinkìmas "swelling" ?, Rus. braga, bražka "must, ale, unfinished or badly produced alcohol drink", broditj "to ferment (brew)", brožénije "fermentation (brewage)".
daksa -*dassa

(δάξα)

 Epirotic Greek[21] Hesychius:[21]

<δάξα>· θάλασσα. Ἠπειρῶται

Regarded to be of Illyrian origin.[22]

May be connected to the Illyrian tribe of the Dassareti[22] and the Chaonian Greek tribe of the Dexaroi[23] (see table below)

 "sea" Alb. Det

Toponyms, hydronyms, anthroponyms

Some words have been extracted from toponyms and anthroponyms.

Name Notes Proposed cognates English meaning PIE etymology Related words
Balios (Βάλιος) Name of one of Achilles's horses. Suspected to be of foreign origin (Thracian, Phrygian or Illyrian).[24] Athanassakis supposes a loanword into Latin from Osco-Umbrian language badius/*balius, via an Illyrian source.[25] Alb. balë 'horse with white spot on forehead', Gk. phaliós 'having a white patch', Lith. balas/baltas 'white', OCS bĕlu 'white' 'dapple', 'related to a white color' *bʰĕl-
Bardylis (Βάρδυλις) Illyrian king Alb. i bardhë[26][27]

Messapic: bardulos[28]

 Alb. "white"

Messapic: "grey"

 *bʰreh₁ǵ-
Dalmatae Illyrian tribe Alb. delmë, delë[29][30][31][32][33][34]

Orel rejects this analogy[35]

 "sheep" Delminium (capital city of the Dalmatae, near Tomislavgrad)[36][37][38]

Dalmana (ancient city in N. Macedonia)[39]

Dardani (Δαρδάνιοι, Δάρδανοι) Tribe which lived in the historical region of Dardania in the central Balkans. Dardania is placed in a transitional onomastic region between southern Illyrian and Dalmatian with regional features.

Connected to Albanian dardhë.[40][41] It appears as a toponym in many Albanian-speaking regions: Dardhishte (Kaçanik), Dardhë (Korçë), Dardhas (Pogradec), Zall i Dardhës (Dibër), Darza (Ulcinj), Dardhatar (Zelenikovo), Dardhës (Molise), Dardhëza (Morea). Kruševo (from Proto-Slavic kruša, "pear") and other related toponyms have been proposed as South Slavic translations of Darda- toponyms.[42]

 Alb. dardhë[40][41] "pear" *g'hord-, *dheregh- Dardanoi in the area of ancient Troy

Dardanelles

Dardi in Daunia

Dassareti (Δασσαρῆται, Δασσαρήτιοι) - Sessarethes (Σεσαρήθιος) Illyrian tribes with possibly related names.[43][44] Ep. Gr. daksa (δάξα)[22] "sea" Affine to the Chaonian Greek Dexaroi[22][23]
Deipatyros (Δειπάτυροϛ) Deity of the Epirotic Stymphians,[45][46] regarded as a name of Illyrian origin[46][47][48] "sky father" Demeter[47]
Dimallum - Dimale (Διμάλη) Illyrian city on the border with Epirus Alb. dy male[49][50][51] 'two mountains'
Enchelii (Ἐγχέλιοι/Ἐγχελεῖς) Illyrian tribe Alb. ngjalë[52] "eel" *h₂engʷʰ-
Taulantii (Ταυλάντιοι) Illyrian tribe

Living nearfter the Chelidones (meaning "swallow" in Greek, main reason for the connection with Alb. "dallëndyshe")[53][54][55]

 Alb. dallëndyshe[56][53][57] "swallow" Chelidones (Χελιδόνιοι)
Tergeste Illyrian city Alb. treg[58][59] 'marketplace' Tergolape, Opitergium[59]
Teuta(na) (Τεύτα) Teuta is the diminutive of Teutana[60] Got. þiudans "king"[61][62] "people" *teutéh₁-
Ulcinium (Ουλκίνιον) Illyrian city Alb. ujk - ulk[40][63][64] "wolf" *wĺ̥kʷos Ulcisia castra
Vendum Illyrian city Alb. vend[10] 'place, location'
Other lemmas are:
  • Agruvium "along the coast between Risinum and Butua": IE *aĝr-; cf. Skt. ájraḥ "pasture, field", Lat. ager, Gk. agrós, Goth. akrs
  • Bindus "river god"; cf. Alb. bind "to convince, to make believe", përbindësh "monster", Old Ir. banne "drop", Skt. bindú, vindú "drops, gob, spot", possibly Lat. fōns Bandusiae and Lusit. Bandua.[65]
  • Bosona "Bosna river", literally "running water": IE *bheg-, bhog- "to run"; Alb. dë-boj "to chase, to drive away", Rus. bĕg "running; (work)flow", Old Ch. Slav. bĕžati and Rus. bĕžatj "to flee, run; to work, to flow", Lith. bėgti "to flee, to run", Gk. phébesthai "to flee", phóbos "fear", Eng. beck "brook, stream", Middle Ir. búal "flowing water", Hindi bhāg "to flee"
  • mons Bulsinus "Büžanim hill": IE *bʰl̥kos;[66] cf. Eng. balk, Alb. bligë "forked piece of wood", Middle Ir. blog "piece, fragment", Lat. fulcrum "bedpost", Gk. phálanx "trunk, log", Lith. balžiena "crossbar", Serb. blazína "roof beam", Skt. bhuríjāu "cart arms"
  • Derbanoí, Anderva: IE *derw;[66] cf. Eng. tree, Alb. dru "wood", Old Ch. Slav. drĕvo "tree", Rus. dérevo "tree, wood", Welsh derw "oak", Gk. dóry "wood, spear", drýs "oak, tree", Lith. derva "pine wood", Hitt. taru "tree, wood', Thrac. taru "spear", Skt. dru "tree, wood", daru "wood, log"
  • Dizēros, Andízētes: IE *digh;[66] cf. Eng. dough, Gk. teîkhos "wall", Lat. fingere "to shape, mold", Old Ir. com-od-ding "he builds, erects", Old Rus. dĕža "kneading trough", Arm. dez "heap", Skt. dehah "body, form"
  • Domator, personal name; cf. Old Ir. damnaid "he binds, breaks a horse", dam "ox", Eng. tame, dialectal Germ. zamer "ox not under the yoke", Alb. dem "young bull", Lat. domāre "to tame", domitor "tamer", Gk. dámnēmi "to break in", dámalos "calf", Skt. dāmyáti "he is tame; he tames", Rus. odomashnivat' "to tame"
  • Loúgeon: Strabo in his Geography mentions "a marsh called Lougeon" (which has been identified as Lake Cerknica in Slovenia) by the locals (Illyrian and Celtic tribes), Lougeon being Strabo's rendition of the local toponym into Greek. cf. Alb. lag "to wet, soak, bathe, wash", lëgatë "pool", lug "trough, water-channel, spillway", Lith. liűgas "pool", Old Ch. Slav. & Rus. luža "pool", Rus. loža, lože, lógovo "rest place, lounge place, bed, den", Rus. ležátj "to lie, rest, lounge" and ložitj "to lay, put", Thrac. Lýginos, river name[67]
  • stagnus Morsianus "marshlands in Pannonia": IE *merĝ; cf. Middle High Germ. murc "rotten, withered, boggy", Old Ir. meirc "rust", Alb. marth "to shiver, shudder", Lith. markýti "to rust"
  • Naro: IE *nor; cf. Alb. "hum-nerë" "abyss, chasm", Lith. nãras "diving duck; diver", Russ. norá "hole, burrow", Serbo-Croat. po-nor "abyss"
  • Nedinum: IE *ned; cf. Skt. nadas "roarer"[66]
  • Oseriates "lakes": IE *h1eĝʰero;[66] cf. Serb-Croat. jȅzero, Rus. ózero, Lith. éžeras, Latvian ȩzȩrs, Gk. Achérōn "river in the underworld"
  • Pelso (Latin authors referred to modern Lake Balaton as "lacus Pelso", Pelso being a hydronym from the local inhabitants), Pelso apparently meant "deep" or "shallow": IE *pels-; cf. Rus. ples (deep place in lake or river), North Alb. fellë (from fell "deep"), Czech pleso "deep place in a river, lake", Welsh bwlch "crack", Arm. pelem "to dig"
  • Volcos, river name in Pannonia; cf. Old Ir. folc "heavy rain, wet weather", Welsh golchi "to wash", obsolete Eng. welkin "cloud", Old High Germ. welk "moist", German Wolke "cloud", Old Ch. Slav. and Rus. vlaga "moisture, plant juice", Volga, river name in Russia, ? vŭlgŭkŭ "wet", Latv. val̃gums "wetness", Alb. ulmej "to dampen, wet"

Proposed Illyrian anthroponyms

Greek inscription with Illyrian onomastics (name and patronymic) on a funerary stele, 2nd century BC, Apollonia, Albania.[68]

The following anthroponyms derive from Illyrian or are not yet connected with another language unless noted, such as the Delmatae names of Liburnian origin. Alföldy identified five principal onomastic provinces within the Illyrian area: 1) the "real" Illyrians south of the river Neretva in Dalmatia and extending south to Epirus; 2) the Delmatae, who occupied the middle Adriatic coast between the "real Illyrians" to the south and the Liburni to the north; 3) the Liburni, a branch of Venetic in the northeast Adriatic; 4) the Iapodes, who dwelt north of the Delmatae and behind (inland from) the coastal Liburnians; 5) the Pannonians in the northern lands, and in Bosnia, northern Montenegro and Western Serbia. Katičić does not recognize a separate Pannonian onomastic area, and includes the Pannoni with the Delmatae.[69] Below, names from four of Alföldy's five onomastic areas are listed, Liburnian excluded, having been identified as being akin to Venetic. A Dardanian area is also detailed.[70][71][72]

South Illyrian

Coin from Apollonia bearing the inscription ΒΑΤΩΝ
Coin from Dyrrhachion bearing the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΟΝΟΥΝΙΟΥ

Delmatae

Hundreds of Delmatae names have been recorded. Characteristic names include:

  • Andena, Andes, Andis, Andio, Andia
  • Aplis, Apludus, Aplus, Aplius
  • Apurus
  • Baezo
  • Beusas, Beuzas
  • Curbania
  • Cursulavia
  • Iato
  • Lavincia
  • Ledrus
  • Messor
  • Paio, Paiio
  • Panes, Panias, Panius (or Pantus, inscription unclear), Panentius
  • Pant(h)ia/Panto (f.)
  • Pinsus
  • Pladomenus
  • Platino
  • Samuntio
  • Seio, Seiio
  • Statanius, Staticus, Stato, Status
  • Sestus, Sextus, Sexto
  • Tito
  • Tizius
  • Tritus
  • Var(r)o

Delmatae names in common with the Pannoni (some also occur among the south Illyrians):

  • Bardurius.
  • Bato
  • Carius
  • Dasantilla
  • Dasas, Dazas
  • Dasto
  • Plator, Platino
  • Scenobarbus, Scenobardos (?)
  • Verzo
  • Verzulus

Some Delmatae names probably originate from the Liburnians. This conclusion is based on the Liburnian suffixes: -icus, -ica, -ocus, -ico; and from the distribution of the names among the Liburni/Veneti, and from their absence or scarcity in other onomastic areas:

  • Acenica
  • Clevata
  • Darmocus
  • Germanicus (the native Delmatae stem Germanus, Germus, with the Venetic/Liburnian -icus suffix)
  • Labrico
  • Lunnicus
  • Melandrica
  • Turus

From the southern Illyrians, the names Boria, Epicadus, Laedicalius, Loiscus, Pinnes and Tato and some others are present. From the Iapodes, Diteio and Ve(n)do, and a few names of Celtic origin (not shown here).

Pannoni

Some names attested among the Pannoni:

  • Bato (also common among the Delmatae)
  • Dasas, Dasius (also common among the Delmatae)
  • Scenobarbus (also common among the Delmatae)
  • Carvus
  • Laidus
  • Liccaius
  • Plator
  • Temans
  • Tueta
  • Varro
  • Verzo

The following names are confined to the Pannonian onomastic province:

  • Arbo
  • Arsa (possibly Thracian)
  • Callo
  • Daetor
  • Iauletis (genitive)
  • Pirusta
  • Proradus
  • Scirto
  • Vietis (genitive)

Northern Pannoni:

  • Bato
  • Breucus
  • Dases
  • Dasmenus
  • Licco
  • Liccaius

Names attested among the Colapiani, an Illyric tribe of Pannonia:

  • Bato
  • Cralus
  • Liccaius
  • Lirus
  • Plassarus

Among the Jasi: Scenus. The Breuci: Scilus Bato (first and last name), Blaedarus, Dasmenus, Dasius, Surco, Sassaius, Liccaius, Lensus. The Amantini, the Scordisci: Terco, Precio, Dases, Dasmenus.

Messapic

  • Dasius, Latin form of a Messapic name from southern Italy.[74]

Illyrian theonyms

Main article: Illyrian religion

The following names of gods (theonyms) derive from possibly several languages (Liburnian, Illyrian, etc.) and are names of gods worshipped by the Illyrians. However, they are known through Interpretatio romana and their names may have been corrupted.[75]

  • Anzotica
  • Armatus[76]
  • Bindus[77]
  • Boria
  • Eia
  • Ica
  • Iria
  • Latra
  • Malesocus
  • Medaurus[78]
  • Sentona
  • Thana[79]
  • Vidasus[79]

External influences

See also: Jireček Line

The Ancient Greek language would have become an important external influence on Illyrian-speakers who occupied lands adjacent to ancient Greek colonies, mainly on the Adriatic coast.[80] The Taulantii and the Bylliones had, according to Strabo, become bilingual.[81] Invading Celts who settled on lands occupied by Illyrians brought the Illyrians into contact with the Celtic languages and some tribes were Celticized especially those in Dalmatia[82][83] and the Pannoni.[84] Intensive contact may have happened in what is now Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia. Due to this intensive contact, and because of conflicting classical sources, it is unclear whether some ancient tribes were Illyrian or Celtic (ex: Scordisci)[85] or mixed in varying degree. Thracians and Paeonians also occupied lands populated by Illyrians, bringing Illyrians into contact with the Thracian language and Paeonian language. Certainly, no serious linguistic study of Illyrian language could be made without the inclusion of Latin, in addition to ancient Greek, Thracian and Celtic languages, as the peoples that spoke those languages were recorded by both ancient and modern historians to have lived in lands inhabited by Illyrians at one period of time in history or another. Last, but certainly not least, any comprehensive study of Illyrian language must take into account the Indo-European glossary.[86]

Celtic

The following Illyrian names derive from Celtic:

Thracian

The following names derive from Thracian:

Greek

The following names may derive from Greek:

  • Ardiaioi, the ancient Greek name for Ardiaei (ardis, 'head of the arrow, sting'). One challenge to this theory is that the suggested root-word ardis does not necessarily form 'Ardiaioi', by the rules of Greek language
  • Ceraunii, tribal exonym, ("Κεραύνιοι, "Thunderbolt-men)"[95]
  • Cleitus, ("κλειτός", "renowned man")
  • Glaukias, ("γλαυκός", "gleaming man")
  • Illyrians, gr. Ἰλλυριοί, tribal exonym
  • Mellito, Greek and Celtic element,[88] gr. μελλιτόεις, "like honey"
  • Plator, gr. Πλάτων, "wide man"
  • Pleuratus, gr. πλευρά, "side'"

Latin

The following names may derive from Latin:

  • Ardiaei, (ardea, 'heron'). However, the problem with the theory supporting the Latin etymology for the Ardiaei is that Ardiaioi, a Greek form of Ardiaei is found in several pre-Roman sources, and it turns that it precedes the Roman/Latin Influence, as it precedes the Vardaei, another form of this name. Greek historian Strabo says in paragraph 6 (Book 7, chapter 5) of his Geographica: “The Ardiaei were called by the men of later times "Vardiaei".[86]

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  67. Strabo. Geography, 7.43: "élos loúgeon kaloúmenon".
  68. Ceka, Neritan (2005). Apollonia: History and Monuments. Migjeni. p. 19. ISBN 9789994367252. "In the third-second centuries BC, a number of Illyrians, including Abrus, Bato, and Epicardus, rose to the highest position in the city administration, that of prytanis. Other Illyrians such as Niken, son of Agron, Tritus, son of Plator, or Genthius, are found on graves belonging to ordinary families (fig.7)."
  69. Katičić 1965
  70. Wilkes 1995, p. 72: "Thus it seems generally agreed that the name of the Illyrian queen Teuta of the third century BC derives from teutana, which means 'queen'."
  71. Wilkes 1995, p. 71: "The names Daza, Dasius and Dazomenus have been connected with Dasmenus in Pannonia and Dazos in southern Italy. The meaning of these plausible correspondences is hard to determine: neither the internal links between the three principal Illyrian onomastic provinces nor those between them and other areas indicate more than that the languages spoken by peoples in the Illyrian territories were somehow related if not altogether common."
  72. Wilkes 1995, p. 186: "The fourth of the Venetic-speaking peoples around the head of the Adriatic were the Liburni, who occupied the coast and islands between Istria and the river Titus (Krka) and had been known to the Greeks since at least the eighth century BC."
  73. Wilkes 1995, p. 73: "The common name Bato may derive from the same root as the Latin battuere meaning `to strike', or is just as likely to derive from the root *bha 'say' or 'tell', the Latin fari."
  74. Williams 2004, p. 182: "1 Dasius: The Latin form of a Messapic name from southern Italy..."
  75. Wilkes 1995, p. 245: "Illyrian deities are named on monuments of the Roman era, some in equation with gods of the classical pantheon. ... Thus several deities occur only in Istria, including Eia, Malesocus, Boria and Iria. Anzotica was the Liburnian Venus and appears in the traditional image of the classical goddess. Other local deities were Latra, Sentona and the nymph Ica, worshipped in eastern Istria at a spring still known by praying in relief sculpture, Knez 1974 (ritual vessel), Baçe 1984 (temple architecture in Illyrian Albania)."
  76. Wilkes 1995, p. 247: "Sometimes the name of a local deity is recorded only in the Latin form, for example, Armatus at Delminium (Duvno) who was evidently a war god of the Delmatae, and the Latin Liber who appears with the attributes of Silvanus and Terminus..."
  77. Wilkes 1995, p. 200: "Continuity in a local tradition of engraved ornament is to be seen on other monuments of the Roman period, including altars dedicated by chiefs of the Japodes at the shrine of Bindus Neptunus at a spring near Bihac (see figure 30)."
  78. Wilkes 1995, p. 247: "The Illyrian town Rhizon (Risinium) on the Gulf of Kotor had its protective deity Medaurus..."
  79. Wilkes 1995, pp. 246–247: "North of the Japodes, the altars to Vidasus and Thana dedicated at the hot springs of Topuško..."
  80. Davison et al. 2006, p. 21; Pomeroy et al. 2008, p. 255.
  81. Lewis & Boardman 1994, "The Illyrians c. 540-360 B.C.", p. 423: "Through contact with their Greek neighbors some Illyrian tribe became bilingual (Strabo VII.7.8 diglottoi): in particular the Bylliones and the Taulantian tribes close to Epidamnus."
  82. Hornblower & Spawforth 2003, p. 426.
  83. Bunson 1995, "ILLYRICUM (Dalmatia)", p. 202.
  84. Hornblower & Spawforth 2003, p. 1106.
  85. Ó hÓgáin 2003, p. 60.
  86. Adzanela (Axhanela) Ardian, Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina-an overview of a cultural legacy, 2004, https://www.academia.edu/2490281/Illyrian_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina-an_Overview_of_a_Cultural_Legacy_Ancient_Illyrians_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina
  87. Wilkes 1995, p. 82.
  88. Wilkes 1995, p. 79.
  89. Wilkes 1995, p. 84.
  90. Wilkes 1995, p. 75.
  91. Wilkes 1995, p. 76.
  92. Wilkes 1995, pp. 76, 82.
  93. Wilkes 1995, p. 86.
  94. Wilkes 1995, pp. 84, 86.
  95. Wilkes 1995, p. 217: "Ceraunii whose name deriving from the Greek for 'thunderbolt' links them with high mountains..."

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