Persian famine of 1917–1919

Capacity of modern hospitals operating in Iran as of 1920[1]

Affiliation	City	Total beds	Notes
Persian	Tehran	372	+Pharmacy +Dispensary
	Enzeli	15	+Pharmacy +Dispensary
	Tabriz	30
	Hamadan	12	Outpatient only
	Mashhad	90
	Qazvin	25–30	+Dispensary
	Mohammerah	20
	Malayer	10
	Sabzevar	Un­known
Church Missionary Society	Isfahan	180
	Kerman	80
	Yazd	80
	Shiraz	50
Presbyterian Mission	Tehran	45	+Apothecary
	Mashhad	50	+Apothecary
	Rasht	5	+Apothecary
	Hamadan	25	+Apothecary
	Kermanshah	25	+Apothecary
	Tabriz	100	+Apothecary
	Urmieh	40	+Apothecary
Filles de la charité	Khosrova	8
German (until 1915)
	Tehran	Un­known	Legation
	Tabriz	—	Apothecary only
	Barfrouch
	Rasht
	Hamadan
	Sanandaj
	Kermanshah
Russian Red Cross (until 1918)	Tehran	Un­known (Small hospitals)
	Torbat-e Heydarieh
	Mashhad
	Tabriz
	Urmieh
British	Tehran	Un­known (Small hospitals)	+Dispensary
	Mashhad
	Torbat-e Heydarieh
	Naserabad		+Dispensary
	Bushehr
	Kermanshah
	Lengeh		+Dispensary
	Mohammerah		+Dispensary
	Ahvaz
Anglo-Persian Oil Company	Abadan	>200	+Dispensary
	Masjed Soleiman
	Ahvaz
	Mohammerah

In November 1915, the price of one kharvar (100 kilos) of wheat increased to twenty tomans, "if there [was] any to be found", after the total granary of the south-east province of Sistan was sold off to the British troops. Russian troops blockaded all the roads in the north-east province of Khorasan, prohibiting any transfers of grain, except those destined for the Russian army. The requisitioning of pack animals, mules and camels for the oil industry in Khuzestan, and for the British and Russian armed forces, left the country's transport network in serious disarray, and disrupted the distribution of foodstuffs and other goods throughout the country – with disastrous consequences. During the war, it often cost more to transport grain than to grow it, in many parts of Iran. All this made the living conditions of the poor even more dreadful.[2]

People awaiting to be fed with stew. Photo taken by 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron in Bijar

A series of severe droughts from 1916 on further depleted agricultural supplies. By early February 1918, the famine spread throughout the country, and panicked crowds in major cities began to loot bakeries and food stores. In the western city of Kermanshah, confrontations between the hungry poor and the police ended in casualties. In Tehran, the situation was "aggravated by hoarding and short-selling to the customers by bakers".[2]

Adulteration of bread, as well as the exorbitant prices charged by some bakers, outraged Tehran's working poor. Thus, for example, the printing-house workers, who had recently formed a union, staged a demonstration in Tehran in 1919, during which crowds attacked the bakeries and granaries, and called on the government to increase food rations, to standardize the price of bread, and to regulate the quality, supply and sales of foodstuffs. Nevertheless, in the turbulent post-war era neither the national government nor foreign powers were in a position to do much to alleviate the human crises. The devastation caused by famine and contagious diseases continued for many years.[2]

Cases of cannibalism were also reported.[2]

Beyond deaths from starvation, epidemics also killed large numbers of people.[2]

The colossal food crisis, plus large numbers of soldiers, refugees and destitute people constantly on the move in search of work and survival, facilitated a deadly combination of pandemics and contagious diseases. Cholera, the plague and typhus spread with terrifying speed across the country.[2]

According to Touraj Atabaki, "successive seasonal droughts caused widespread famine during 1917/1918. Requisition and confiscation of foodstuffs by occupying armies to feed their soldiers added to the famine".[2] In The Cambridge History of Iran, it is stated that speculation and hoarding made the situation worse.[9] Michael Axworthy believes that the famine was "partly as a result of the dislocation of trade and agricultural production caused by the war".[10] Tammy M. Proctor comments that the cause for food shortage was a combination of army requisitioning, war profiteering, hoarding and poor harvests.[11]

Nikki Keddie and Yann Richard related the famine to almost all of the factors mentioned above.[12]

Charles P. Melville maintains that the main reason of the famine were the conditions caused by the War.[13]

Mohammad Gholi Majd, holds the British occupation and its custom and finance regulations accountable for worsening the famine,[14] and Willem Floor suggests James L. Barton's account (occupation by armies, exceptionally light snowfall and disease), joint with hoarding by landowners and lack of purchasing power as other crucial causes of famine. According to him, two major grain producing areas, namely Kermanshah–Hamadan and Azarbaijan were the battlefield between the Ottomans and the Russians.[15]

Pat Walsh in a review of Majd's book written in Irish Foreign Affairs, a quarterly publication by Irish Political Review blames the British occupation and comments on claims of hoarding as causes of famine, writing "British attitudes towards the starving Persians were uncannily similar to those expressed against the Irish in a similar position half a century before", i.e. the British blamed Persians while suggesting that building roads for their military was a ‘relief measure’ motivated by benevolence.[16]

Rob Johnson blames bad governance and wartime shortages for the famine.[17]

Scholars such as Ervand Abrahamian, Homa Katouzian and Barry Rubin maintain that the total death toll due to starvation and disease was around 2 million.[18][19][20] Central Intelligence Agency analysts Steven R. Ward and Kenneth M. Pollack state a similar number.[21][22] Nikki Keddie and Yann Richard state that about one-quarter of the population of northern Iran were killed.[12]

Mohammad Gholi Majd's book, The Great Famine and Genocide in Persia, 1917–1919, identifies a number of allied sources that detail the proportion and scale of the deaths,[23] and alleges that as many as 8–10 million died, across the whole nation, based on an alternate pre-famine Persian population estimate of 19 million.[15][24] Timothy C. Winegard and Pordeli et al. acknowledge the figures suggested by Majd.[25][26] Several scholars have disputed Majd's account.

Ervand Abrahamian comments that the book includes an "exaggerated discussion" of losses during the famine,[27] a view he shares with Mahmood Messkoub,[28] Abbas Milani[29] and Rudi Matthee.[6] Abrahamian describes calling the famine a genocide as "wild accusation" and attributes the vast majority of the 2 million deaths he estimates to cholera and typhus epidemics, as well as mostly worldwide influenza pandemic.[18] While accepting that the total death toll could be several millions, Hormoz Ebrahimnejad says Majd's figure is an overestimation.[30]

Cormac Ó Gráda, discussing the difficulty of verifying the death toll of historical famines, describes the claim of genocide as "not possible to take literally": "Such claims are usually rhetorical, and sure signs of major disasters, but poor guides to actual mortality."[31] A similar view is expressed by Alidad Mafinezam and Aria Mehrabi, who state that Majd's work suffers from methodological defects, including lack of triangulation.[32]

During the famine years, several politicians served as Prime Minister and all adopted interventionist policies.[33] In order to control the situation of food supply, the government in Persia appointed Abdollah Mostowfi as chief of the alimentation service (raʾīs-e arzāq) in October 1916, before his later boss Mokhber al-Saltaneh took office as the minister for alimentation (vazīr-e arzāq) in October 1917.[33] Siham al-Dawlah became chief of the bakery bureau (raʾīs-e nānvāʾī) in 1918 and an alimentation committee (komīté-ye arzāq) was also formed out of seven or eight influential merchants. The committee met daily and assisted the government with advice, including a proposal to introduce government incentive for bread.[33]

In 1918, the United States rejected the request of Persian government for a $2 million loan dedicated to famine relief.[34]

Members of the Jungle movement sheltered refugees who came to Gilan from other parts of the country and founded a charity to help them. They also sent several tons of rice to the capital.[35] In Tabriz, the Democrats who were armed suppressed hoarders and speculators while organizing the relief.[36]

Congregational prayers for rain were observed during the famine, including those of Mashhad in 1917, where babies and animals were also brought.[37]

In Tabriz, medical missionary William Summerill Vanneman was appointed by the U.S. consul to be chairman of the Tabriz relief committee.[38] In this role, he communicated with Secretary of State Robert Lansing and U.S. Ambassador Henry Morgenthau to manage funds sent by the American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, now known as the Near East Foundation.[39]

In recent years, the famine has been subject to conspiracy theories, polarization and historical revisionism in Iran.[40] Much of the controversy is about the death toll and root causes, and lack of sufficient data on this period has been described as the "principal driver" for it.[40] The official website of Ali Khamenei, Iran's supreme leader, published an article in 2015 asserting the view that the famine was a deliberate act of genocide committed by the British, whose documents have been intentionally wiped out in a cover-up attempt.[41] The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) produced and aired a documentary on the famine, which was condemned by conservatives in Iran as a ploy to minimise British role and underline the feebleness of Iran.[42]