List of submarine topographical features

This is a list of submarine topographical features, oceanic landforms and topographic elements.

Depiction of the abyssal zone in relation to other major oceanic zones.

Abyssal plain

An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor, usually found at depths between 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) and 6,000 meters (20,000 ft). Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plains are among the flattest, smoothest and least explored regions on Earth.[1] Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills). In addition to these elements, active oceanic basins (those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone. Abyssal plains cover more than 33% of the ocean floor (about 23% of Earth's surface),[2] but they are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process.[1][3][4]

The abyssal plain is formed when the lower oceanic crust is melted and forced upwards by the asthenosphere layer of the upper mantle. As this basaltic material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges, it forms new oceanic crust. Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments, mainly clay and silt. Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water. The remainder of the sediment is composed chiefly of pelagic sediments.

Use of a continuously recording fathometer enabled Tolstoy & Ewing in the summer of 1947 to identify and describe the first abyssal plain.[1][5] This plain, located to the south of Newfoundland, is now known as the Sohm Abyssal Plain.[5] Following this discovery many other examples were found in all the oceans.[6][7][8][9][10]

List of abyssal plains and oceanic basins
See also: Abyssal plain and Oceanic basin

Following is a list of named abyssal plains and oceanic basins:[1][11][12]

Name Alternate name Ocean Coordinates[11]
Adriatic Abyssal Plain (Adriatic Basin) Mediterranean 43°0′N 15°0′E
Agulhas Bank[13] (Agulhas Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 35°30′S 21°00′E
Alaska Plain (Alaskan Abyssal Plain, Alaskan Plain) North Pacific Ocean 55°0′N 143°0′W
Alborán Plain (Alboran Abyssal Plain) Alboran Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 35°55′N 3°50′W
Aleutian Basin (Aleutskaya Kotlovina, Bering Abyssal Plain, Bering Basin, Bering Sea Basin) North Pacific Ocean 57°0′N 177°0′E
Amerasia Basin (Central Polar Basin; consists of the Canada Basin and the Makarov Basin)
Amundsen Basin (Amundsen Basin) Arctic Ocean 89°0′N 80°0′E
Amundsen Plain (Amundsen Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 65°0′S 125°0′W
Angola Plain[14][15][16]

[17]

 (Angola Abyssal Plain, Angola Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 15°0′S 2°0′E
Argentine Abyssal Plain (Argentine Plain, Argentine Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 47°30′S 50°0′W
Atlantic-Indian Basin[18][19] Indian Ocean 60°0′S 15°0′E
Balearic Abyssal Plain Mediterranean Sea 40°00′N 01°30′E
Baffin Basin (Baffin Bay Basin) North Atlantic Ocean 73°15′N 67°0′W
Barracuda Plain (Barracuda Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 17°0′N 56°30′W
Bauer Basin
Bellingshausen Plain (Bellingshausen Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 64°0′S 90°0′W
Biscay Plain[20] (Biscay Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 45°0′N 7°15′W
Blake Basin (Blake Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 29°30′N 76°4′W
Boreas Plain (Boreas Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 77°0′N 1°0′E
Burdwood Abyssal Plain South Atlantic Ocean
Canada Plain[21] (Canada Abyssal Plain, Canada Basin, Canada Deep, Canadian Plain, Kanadskaya Abissal'naya Ravnina Kanadskaya). One of two sub-basins of the Amerasia Basin. Arctic Ocean 80°0′N 140°0′W
Canary Basin
Cape Plain[14] (Cape Abyssal Plain, Cape Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 34°45′S 6°0′E
Cape Verde Plain[22] (Cape Verde Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 23°0′N 26°0′W
Cascadia Plain (Cascadia Abyssal Plain, Cascadia Basin, Bassin Cascadia, Great Trough) North Pacific Ocean 47°0′N 127°30′W
Ceará Plain (Brazil Basin, Ceara Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 0°0′N 36°30′W
Central Pacific Basin
Ceylon Plain (Ceylon Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 4°0′S 82°0′E
Chile Basin
Chukchi Plain[21] (Chukchi Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 77°0′N 172°0′W
Cocos Abyssal Plain (Cocos Basin) Indian Ocean
Colombian Plain (Colombia Abyssal Plain, Colombian Abyssal Plain) Caribbean (Atlantic Ocean) 13°0′N 76°0′W
Comoro Plain (Comores Abyssal Plain) Mozambique Channel (Indian Ocean) 13°45′S 44°30′E
Cuvier Plain (Cuvier Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 22°0′S 111°0′E
Demerara Plain (Demerara Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 10°0′N 48°0′W
Dibble Basin Southern Ocean 65°20′S 133°0′E
Dumshaf Plain (Dumshaf Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 68°0′N 5°0′E
Enderby Plain[23][24] (Enderby Abyssal Plain, East Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 60°0′S 40°0′E
Eratosthenes Abyssal Plain[25][26] (Eratosthenes Seamount) Mediterranean Sea 33°40′N 32°40′E
Eurasian Basin (Norway Abyssal Plain, Norwegian Basin; consists of the Amundsen Basin and the Nansen Basin) Arctic Ocean 80°N 90°E
Euxine Abyssal Plain[27][28][29] Black Sea
Fernando de Noronha Plain (Fernando de Noronha Abyssal Plain, Planicie Abissal de Fernando de Noronha) South Atlantic Ocean 3°0′S 31°0′W
Ferradura Plain (Ferradura Abyssal Plain, Planicie Abissal da Ferradura) North Atlantic Ocean 36°0′N 10°45′W
Fletcher Plain (Abissal’naya Ravnina Fletchera) Arctic Ocean 86°0′N 179°59′W
Florida Plain (Florida Abyssal Plain) Gulf of Mexico (Atlantic Ocean) 25°30′N 86°0′W
Fram Basin[21] (Barents Abyssal Plain, Barents Plain) One of two sub-basins of the Eurasian Basin. Arctic Ocean 83°0′N 35°0′E
Gambia Plain (Gambia Abyssal Plain, Gambia Basin) North Atlantic Ocean 12°0′N 28°0′W
Gascoyne Plain (Exmouth Abyssal Plain, Gascogne Plain, Gascoyne Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 16°0′S 110°0′E
Greenland Plain (Greenland Abyssal Plain, Iceland Basin, Plaine du Groenland) Arctic Ocean 75°0′N 3°0′W
Grenada Abyssal Plain Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)
Guiana Basin
Guinea Plain[14] (Guinea Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 1°0′N 3°0′W
Hatteras Plain (Hatteras Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 31°0′N 71°0′W
Herodotus Basin (Herodotus Abyssal Plain, Herodotus Plain) Levantine Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 33°0′N 28°0′E
Hellenic Trench (Metapan Deep System) Ionian Sea 36°23′N 22°38′E
Hispaniola Plain (Hispaniola Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 20°18′N 71°35′W
Horseshoe Plain (Horseshoe Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 35°40′N 12°20′W
Iberian Plain[30][31] (Iberia Abyssal Plain, Iberian Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 43°45′N 13°30′W
Jamaican Abyssal Plain Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)
Japan Plain (Japan Abyssal Plain) Sea of Japan (Pacific Ocean) 41°30′N 135°0′E
JOIDES Basin Southern Ocean 74°30′S 174°0′E[32]
Labrador Basin (Labrador Sea Basin) North Atlantic Ocean 53°0′N 48°0′W
Laurentian Abyss North Atlantic Ocean
Lichte Trough Antarctica Ocean 76°25′S 30°0′W
Madeira Abyssal Plain (Madeira Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 32°0′N 21°0′W
Makarov Basin one of two sub-basins of the Amerasia Basin. Arctic Ocean
Mascarene Plain[33] (Madagascar Basin, Malagasy Abyssal Plain, Seychelles-Mauritius Plateau) Indian Ocean 19°0′S 52°0′E
Melanesian Basin
Mendeleyev Plain[21] (Mendeleyev Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 81°0′N 170°0′W
Mid Indian Abyssal Plain (Mid-Indian Basin) Indian Ocean
Mornington Abyssal Plain South Pacific Ocean
Namibia Abyssal Plain South Atlantic Ocean
Nansen Basin One of two sub-basins of the Eurasian Basin. Arctic Ocean
Nares Plain (Fosse Nares, Nares Abyssal Plain, Nares Deep, Nares Tiefe) North Atlantic Ocean 23°30′N 63°0′W
Natal Basin
Newfoundland Basin North Atlantic Ocean 43°30′N 45°0′W
North Australian Basin (Argo Abyssal Plain, Bassin Nord de l' Australie, Severo-Avstralijskaja Kot) Indian Ocean 14°30′S 116°30′E
North Polar Basin (consists of the Amerasia Basin and the Eurasian Basin)
Northwest Pacific Basin
Northwind Plain USCGC Northwind (WAGB-282) (Northwind Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 76°0′N 161°0′W
Okhotsk Abyssal Plain Sea of Okhotsk (western Pacific Ocean)
Oman Plain (Arabian Basin, Oman Abyssal Plain) Arabian Sea (Indian Ocean) 23°0′N 61°0′E
Panama Plain (Clark Abyssal Plain) Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) 11°0′N 79°0′W
Papua Plain (Papua Abyssal Plain) South Pacific Ocean 14°0′S 151°30′E
Para Abyssal Plain North Atlantic Ocean
Penrhyn Basin
Pernambuco Plain (Pernambuco Abyssal Plain) South Atlantic Ocean 7°30′S 27°0′W
Perth Plain[34] (Perth Abyssal Plain, Perth Basin, West Australian Basin) Indian Ocean 28°30′S 110°0′E
Peru Basin
Pole Plain (Central Polar Basin, Pole Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 89°0′N 45°0′E
Porcupine Abyssal Plain[35][36] (Porcupine Plain, West European Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 49°0′N 16°0′W
Raukumara Abyssal Plain South Pacific Ocean
Rhodes Basin (Rhodes Abyssal Plain, Ró2dhos Basin) Sea of Crete (Mediterranean Sea) 35°55′N 28°30′E
Roggeveen Basin
Sardino-Balearic Plain (Algerian Plain, Balearic Abyssal Plain, Balearic Plain, Sardino-Balearic Abyssal Plain) Mediterranean Sea 39°0′N 6°20′E
Seine Plain (Seine Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 34°0′N 12°15′W
Siberian Abyssal Plain[21] Arctic Ocean
Sicilia Plain (Messina Abyssal Plain, Sicily Plain) Mediterranean Sea 36°0′N 18°0′E
Sierra Leone Plain (Sierra Leone Abyssal Plain, Sierra Leone Basin) North Atlantic Ocean 5°0′N 17°0′W
Sigsbee Deep (Mexico Basin, Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, Sigsbee Deep, Sigsbee Basin) Gulf of Mexico (Atlantic Ocean) 23°30′N 93°0′W
Silver Plain (Silver Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 22°30′N 69°30′W
Sirte Basin[37] (Ionian Abyssal Plain, Sidra Abyssal Plain, Sidra Plain, Sirte Abyssal Plain, Surt Plain) Libyan Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 34°10′N 19°22′E
Sohm Abyssal Plain[5] (Fosse de Suhm, Plaine Sohm, Sohm Deep, Sohm Plain, Suhm Abyssal Plain, Suhm Deep, Suhm Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 36°0′N 55°0′W
Somali Plain (Somali Abyssal Plain, Somali Basin) Indian Ocean 1°0′N 51°30′E
South Australian Plain (Eyre Abyssal Plain, Great Bight Abyssal Plain, South Australian Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 37°30′S 130°0′E
South China Basin (South China Sea Abyssal Plain) South China Sea (Pacific Ocean) 15°0′N 115°0′E
Southeast Pacific Basin
South Fiji Basin
South Indian Plain (South Indian Abyssal Plain, South Indian Basin, South Indian Ocean Plain) Southern Ocean 59°0′S 125°0′E
South West Pacific Abyssal Plain[38][39][40] (South West Pacific Basin) South Pacific Ocean
Tagus Abyssal Plain (Tagus Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 37°30′N 12°0′W
Tasman Plain (Tasman Abyssal Plain, Tasman Apron, Tasman Basin) Tasman Sea (South Pacific Ocean) 34°30′S 153°15′E
Town Abyssal Plain South Atlantic Ocean
Tsushima Basin (Ulleung Basin) Korea Strait (Sea of Japan, Pacific Ocean) 36°35′N 131°48′E
Tufts Plain (Tufts Abyssal Plain) North Pacific Ocean 47°0′N 140°0′W
Tyrrhenian Plain (Tyrrhenian Abyssal Plain) Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 40°0′N 12°45′E
Valdivia Abyssal Plain Southern Ocean 62°30′S 70°0′E
Venezuelan Plain (Venezuela Abyssal Plain) Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) 14°0′N 67°0′W
Vidal Abyssal Plain North Atlantic Ocean
Weddell Plain[41] (Weddell Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 65°0′S 20°0′W
Wrangellia Terrane[21][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49] (Wrangel Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 81°0′N 160°0′E
Yamato Basin Sea of Japan (Pacific Ocean) 37°30′N 135°0′E
Yucatán Abyssal Plain (Guatemala Basin) Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)

Oceanic trenches
Location of the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench

Oceanic trenches are long, narrow topographic depressions of the seabed. They are the deepest parts of the ocean floor, and they define one of the most important natural boundaries on the Earth's solid surface: the one between two lithospheric plates. Trenches are a distinctive morphological feature of plate boundaries. Trenches are found in all oceans with the exception of the Arctic Ocean and they are most common in the North and South Pacific Oceans.[2]

There are three types of lithospheric plate boundaries: 1.) divergent (where lithosphere and oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges), 2.) convergent (where one lithospheric plate sinks beneath another and returns to the mantle), and 3.) transform (where two lithospheric plates slide past each other).

An oceanic trench is a type of convergent boundary at which two oceanic lithospheric slabs meet; the older (and therefore denser) of these slabs flexes and subducts beneath the other slab. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about a tenth of a square meter per second. Trenches are generally parallel to a volcanic island arc, and about 200 km from a volcanic arc. Oceanic trenches typically extend 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor. The greatest ocean depth to be sounded is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,911 m (35,798 ft) below sea level.

List of oceanic trenches
Main article: Oceanic trench

The following is a list of the deepest parts of the Earth's oceans and seas (all depths are measured from sea level):

Name Location Depth (meters) Depth (feet) Depth (miles)
1 Challenger Deep Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc, Mariana Trench, Pacific Ocean 11,034 36,197 6.86
2 Tonga Trench Pacific Ocean 10,882 35,702 6.76
3 Galathea Depth Philippine Trench, Pacific Ocean 10,545 34,580 6.54
4 Kuril–Kamchatka Trench Pacific Ocean 10,542 34,449 6.52
5 Kermadec Trench Pacific Ocean 10,047 32,963 6.24
6 Izu–Ogasawara Trench Pacific Ocean 9,810 32,087 6.08
7 Japan Trench Pacific Ocean 9,000 29,527 5.59
8 Puerto Rico Trench Atlantic Ocean 8,605 28,232 5.35
9 Yap Trench Pacific Ocean 8,527 27,976 5.30
10 Richards Deep Peru–Chile Trench, Pacific Ocean 8,065 26,456 5.01
11 Diamantina Deep Diamantina Fracture Zone, Indian Ocean 8,047 26,401 5.00
12 Romanche Trench Atlantic Ocean 7,760 25,460 4.82
13 Cayman Trough Caribbean 7,687 25,238 4.78
14 Aleutian Trench Pacific Ocean 7,679 25,194 4.77
15 Java Trench Indian Ocean 7,455 24,460 4.63
16 Weber Deep Banda Sea 7,351 24,117 4.56
17 South Sandwich Trench Atlantic Ocean 7,431 24,380 4.62
18 Dordrecht Deep Indian Ocean 7,019 23,028 4.36
19 Middle America Trench Pacific Ocean 6,669 21,880 4.14
20 Puysegur Trench Pacific Ocean 6,300 20,700 3.9
21 Vityaz Trench Pacific Ocean 6,150 20,177 3.8
22 Sulu Trench South China Sea 5,600 18,400 3.48
23 Litke Deep Eurasian Basin*, Arctic Ocean 5,450 17,881 3.39
24 Manila Trench South China Sea 5,400 17,700 3.36
25 Calypso Deep Hellenic Trench, Mediterranean 5,267 17,280 3.27
26 Ryukyu Trench Pacific Ocean 5,212 17,100 3.24
27 Murray Canyon* Southern Ocean, Australia 5,000 16,400 3.1

^* Entries marked are the deepest parts of their respective water bodies, but are not oceanic trenches.

Oceanic plateau

An oceanic plateau is a large, relatively flat submarine region that rises well above the level of the ambient seabed.[50] While many oceanic plateaus are composed of continental crust, and often form a step interrupting the continental slope, some plateaus are undersea remnants of large igneous provinces. Continental crust has the highest amount of silicon (such rock is called felsic). Oceanic crust has a smaller amount of silicon (mafic rock).

The anomalous volcanism associated with the formation of oceanic plateaux at the time of the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary (90.4 million years) ago may have been responsible for the environmental disturbances that occurred at that time. The physical manifestations of this were elevated atmospheric and oceanic temperatures, a significant sea-level transgression, and a period of widespread anoxia, leading to the extinction of 26% of all genera.[51] These eruptions would also have resulted in the emission of large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Additionally, the emission of sulfur monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and halogens into the oceans would have made seawater more acidic resulting in the dissolution of carbonate, and further release of CO2. This runaway greenhouse effect was probably put into reverse by the decline of the anomalous volcanic activity and by increased CO2-driven productivity in oceanic surface waters, leading to increased organic carbon burial, black shale deposition, anoxia and mass extinction in the ocean basins.[51]

Map of the Zealandia microcontinent, showing Alpine Fault, Bounty Trough, Campbell Plateau, Challenger Plateau, Chatham Rise, Havre Trough, Hikurangi Plateau, Kermadec Trench, Lord Howe Rise, Louisville Ridge, New Caledonia Basin, Norfolk Ridge, South Fiji Basin, South West Pacific Basin, and Tasman Basin.

List of oceanic plateaus
Main article: Oceanic plateau

Mid-ocean ridges

A mid-ocean ridge is a general term for an underwater mountain system that consists of various mountain ranges (chains), typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine, formed by plate tectonics. This type of oceanic ridge is characteristic of what is known as an oceanic spreading center, which is responsible for seafloor spreading.

List of mid-ocean ridges
Main article: Mid-ocean ridge

See also

References
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