Indo-European sound laws

As the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) broke up, its sound system diverged as well, as evidenced in various sound laws associated with the daughter Indo-European languages.

Especially notable is the palatalization that produced the satem languages, along with the associated ruki sound law. Other notable changes include:

Bartholomae's law in Indo-Iranian, and Sievers's law in Proto-Germanic and (to some extent) various other branches, may or may not have been common Indo-European features. A number of innovations, both phonological and morphological, represent areal features common to the Italic and Celtic languages; among them the development of labiovelars to labial consonants in some Italic and Celtic branches, producing "p-Celtic" and "q-Celtic" languages (likewise "p-Italic" and "q-Italic", although these terms are less used). Another grouping with many shared areal innovations comprises Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Armenian; among its common phonological innovations are Grassmann's law in Greek and Indo-Iranian, and weakening of pre-vocalic /s/ to /h/ in Greek, Iranian and Armenian.

Consonants

The following table shows the Proto-Indo-European consonants and their reflexes in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, including Proto-Indo-European phonology, Centum and satem languages, the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies. For development of the laryngeals and syllabic consonants, see the vowels table below.

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb.Arm.Anatol.Toch.GreekItalicCeltic Germanic
SanskritAvestan O.C.S.Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5]		 p, pp p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6]		 f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7]		 t;
c [c] [C 7]		 t s; tt/ss[C 5] t tth [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6]		 th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8]		 s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8]		 k c [k] c [k]ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6]		 h;
∅;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3]		 k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4]		 k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9]		 k k;
q [c][C 9]		 kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9]		 ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10]		 qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11]		 ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
 wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b]-[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2]		 t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7]		 d z [zd] > [z] d d [d]-[ð]- t
*ǵ j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3]		 z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8]		 c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8]		 g g g [ɡ]-[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3]		 g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12]		 g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9]		 g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9]		 ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10]		 u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13]		 b [b]-[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*bʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2]		 p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b		 b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15]		 b;
v / f[C 16]
*dʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7]		 th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17]		 d [d]-[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15]		 d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8]		 j [dz];
z[C 2]		 k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7]		 kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8]		 g [ɡ]-[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15]		 g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7]		 g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12]		 g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9]		 g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9]		 ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10]		 f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13]		 g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13]		 g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2]		 h;
∅[C 2]		 š [s] s;
ṣ [ʂ]		 h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
∅;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20]		 i s;
r[C 2]		 s ʃ-[h]- s;
z [C 6]		 s;
r [C 6]
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m]-[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n ∅ n n -- m [˜] n ∅
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15]		 n n;
ñ [ɲ]		 n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2]		 l /
ɫ [ɫ
> ɣ]		 l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2]		 r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
∅		 ∅ y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
∅ [C 2]		 ?i i [j];
∅ [C 2]		 ∅ j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f-∅- w
PIESkr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Alb.Arm.Hitt.Toch.GreekGreek+/j/LatinOld IrishGothicEnglish

Notes for table 1:

  1. A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. Between vowels
  3. Before an original h₂.
  4. Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. After a vowel.
  6. Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. Before a sonorant.
  9. Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. After n.
  14. At the beginning of a word
  15. At the end of a word.
  16. Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. After u, r or before r, l.
  18. Before a stressed vowel
  19. Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb.Arm.Anatol.Toch.GreekItalicCeltic Germanic
Skr.Av. O.C.S.Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d  ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] ƕ [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 1] sp f sp [CC 1]
/ pʿ [pʰ]		 normal dev. sp [CC 1] ? sp f sp [CC 2]
*sd d; ḷ[CC 3] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 3] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 3] st [CC 1] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 1] normal dev. st [CC 1] s; tt/ss[CC 4] st st [CC 2]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 4] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 4] normal dev. sk; [CC 1]
kh [kʰ];[CC 5]
skh [skʰ] [CC 6]		 sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 2] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, ch[CC 7] sk, sč [CC 1] normal dev. ? sk [CC 1] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 2]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 8] st; sθ[CC 9]? st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 7]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 2]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 2]ght [t] [CC 2]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps pss, ssfsps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣšsh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 3]xš[CC 3] (ks)
*kʷs kʷspsx [ks]
*ǵʰs kṣ
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ xš kt
*dʰgʰ kṣ
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž phth s
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk/k khth

Notes to Table 2:

  1. In contrast to *s normally giving h in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.
  2. Germanic spirant law: *p, *t, *k, *kʷ remain stops when preceded by another stop or *s.
  3. After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  4. Between vowels.
  5. After r, l, m, n, t, d, possibly other consonants?
  6. After (Greek) th causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō).
  7. Before front vowels.
  8. Before an original laryngeal.
  9. Before a consonant or original laryngeal.

Vowels and syllabic consonants

This table shows the Proto-Indo-European vowels and syllabic consonants (as reconstructed both before and after the acceptance of laryngeal theory), and their reflexes in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, including Proto-Indo-European phonology, the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies.

Trad. PIELaryng. PIESkr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Arm.Alb.Toch.Hitt.GreekLatin[V 1]Proto-CelticGothic[V 2]Old English[V 1]
normalumlauted[V 3]
*e *e, *h₁e a e je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] ä e, ʔe, i e i; aí [ɛ][V 5] e; eo[V 6]i; ie[V 6]
*a (*a[V 7]), *h₂e o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] e; ie[V 6]
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o
*o a; ā[V 9]
*ə[V 10] *h₁[V 10] i i, ∅ ∅ a, ∅ ā ∅ e a a, ∅
*h₂[V 10] ḫ a
*h₃[V 10] ∅ o
*- *h₁-[V 11] ∅ e (a?) ∅ a, ∅ e (o) ∅
*h₂-[V 11] a ḫa a
*h₃-[V 11] a, ha o
*ē *ē, *eh₁ ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā?[V 12] ē, e, i ē ī ē ǣ
*ā (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ a o [oː] a a/o? a, ah ā > ē[V 13] ā ā ō ē
*ō *ō, *eh₃ uo u e a/ā?; ū?[V 12] a, ā ō ā; ū[V 12]
*i *i i ь i i i; e[V 14] ä i, ī i i; aí [ɛ][V 5] i
*ī *ih₁ ī i y [iː] i i ī ī ei [iː] ī
*ih₂ i
or (j)a?[V 15]		 yā ī or (j)ā?[V 15]
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō?[V 15]
*ei *ei, *h₁ei ai > ē ai > ōi,
āi > aē[V 9]		 ei; ie[V 16] i e ē ei ī ē
*oi *oi, *h₃ei ě ai; ie[V 16] e e, ai ē, ai oi ū oi ái ā ǣ
*ai (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei ai ae ai
*ēi *ēi āi > ai; ā[V 12] āi; ā(i)[V 12] i i ē ēi ī? ei [iː] ī
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u[V 12] ai; ui[V 12] e, ai ai ōi ō u[V 12] ái ā ǣ
*āi *eh₂ei ě ai āi > ēi[V 13] ae
*u *u u ъ u u u; y[V 17] ä u u u u; o[V 18] u; aú [ɔ][V 5] u; o[V 19] y
*ū *uh₁ ū y ū y; i[V 12] u ū ū ȳ
*uh₂ u
or (w)a?[V 15]		 wā ū or (w)ā?[V 15]
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō?[V 15]
*eu *eu, *h₁eu au > ō ə̄u; ao[V 9] ju iau oy e u eu ū ou iu ēo īe
*ou *ou,*h₃eu u au a o, au ou áu ēa
*au (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu aw au au
*ēu *ēu āu > au āu u iau e ū? iu ēo
*ōu *ōu a au ō áu ēa
*m̥ *m̥ a ę im̃; um̃[V 20] am a äm a, un a em em, am um um ym
*m̥̅ *mh₁ ā ìm; ùm[V 20] ama mā mē mā
*mh₂ mā > mē[V 13]
*mh₃ mō
*m̥m *m̥m am ьm/ъm im; um[V 20] am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a ę iñ; uñ[V 20] an än an a en en, an un un yn
*n̥̄ *nh₁ ā ìn; ùn[V 20] ana nā nē nā
*nh₂ nā > nē [V 13]
*nh₃ nō
*n̥n *n̥n an ьn/ъn iñ; uñ[V 20] an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ r̥ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃[V 20] al il, li; ul, lu äl al la ol li;[V 21] al ul ul; ol[V 19] yl
*l̥̄ *lh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìl; ùl[V 20] ala al lā lē lā
*lh₂ lā > lē[V 13]
*lh₃ lō
*l̥l *l̥l ir; ur[V 22] ar ьl/ъl il; ul[V 20] al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ r̥ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃[V 20] ar ir, ri; ur, ru är ar, ur ra or ri;[V 21] ar aúr [ɔr] ur; or[V 19] yr
*r̥̄ *rh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìr; ùr[V 20] ara ra rā rē rā
*rh₂ rā > rē[V 13]
*rh₃ rō
*r̥r *r̥r ir; ur[V 22] ar ьr/ъr ir; ur[V 20] ar ar ar ar
Trad. PIELaryng. PIESkr.Av.O.C.S.Lith.Arm.Alb.Toch.Hitt.GreekLatin[V 1]Proto-CelticGothic[V 2]normalumlauted[V 3]
Old English[V 1]

Notes:

  1. In initial syllables only.
  2. In non-final syllables only.
  3. Before i, ī, or /j/ in the next syllable in Proto-Germanic (i-umlaut).
  4. In a closed syllable.
  5. Before r, h. Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.
  6. Before h, w, or before r, l plus a consonant ("breaking").
  7. The existence of PIE non-allophonic a is disputed.
  8. Before a back vowel in the next syllable (a restoration).
  9. In open syllables (Brugmann's law).
  10. Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.
  11. At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.
  12. In a final syllable.
  13. ā > ē in Attic and Ionic dialects only.
  14. Before ā in the following syllable.
  15. The so-called breaking is disputed (typical examples are *proti-h₃kʷo- > Ved. prátīkam ~ Gk. πρόσωπον; *gʷih₃u̯o- > Ved. jīvá- ~ Arm. keank‘, Gk. ζωός; *duh₂ro- > Ved. dūrá- ~ Arm. erkar, Gk. δηρός)
  16. Under stress.
  17. Before i in the following syllable.
  18. Before wa.
  19. Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable (a-mutation).
  20. In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.
  21. Before a stop or m.
  22. In the neighbourhood of labials.

Examples

See the list of Proto-Indo-European roots hosted at Wiktionary.

*p

*pṓds, ~ *ped-, "foot".[1]

*t

*tréyes, "three".[1]

*ḱ

*ḱm̥tóm, "hundred" (from earlier *dḱm̥tóm)[1]

*k

*kréwh₂s, "raw flesh"[1]

Sound laws within PIE

A few phonological laws can be reconstructed that may have been effective prior to the final breakup of PIE by internal reconstruction.

See also

Further reading
  • "Voiceless high vowels and syncope in older Indo-European" (PDF). Martin Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena.
  • "Uvular Stops or a Glottal Fricative? Theory and Data in Recent Reconstructions of PIE "Laryngeals"" (PDF). Martin Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena.

References
  1. Meier-Brügger, Michael; Gertmenian, Charles (translator) (2003). Indo-European linguistics. Berlin [u.a.]: de Gruyter. pp. 101–131. ISBN 3-11-017433-2. {{cite book}}: |first2= has generic name (help)
  2. Hock, Hans Heinrich (1986). Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 132. ISBN 3-11-010600-0.
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