India–China Border Roads

In the wake of heightened road and track construction work undertaken by China along India's northern and eastern frontiers, India constituted a China Study Group (CSG) in 1997, to study the requirement of road communication, along the China border for brisk movement of troops in the event of armed conflict. At the end of the study, the CSG identified a network of 73 roads, called the India–China Border Roads (ICBR), to be developed along the Indo-China border. The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) in 1999 approved the construction of these roads by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) under the Ministry of Defence. The project was to be completed by 2006 but the deadline was then extended to 2012. The Standing Committee on Defence, a body for legislative oversight, appraised strategic road connectivity in 2018. With regard to the slow pace of construction of border roads, the Border Roads Organisation stated to the committee:[16]

It would not be incorrect to say that few years back the philosophy of our nation was that we should not make roads as near to the border as possible. That philosophy is telling today very clearly as to why we do not have roads. It is only couple of years back that we suddenly decided a change of philosophy and said no, we must go as far forward as possible. It is going to take time. Unfortunately, the time cannot be compressed. Whatever we can do, it will take time.

— BRO, 50th Report, Standing Committee on Defence (2018-19)

Reasons such as climate, geography, land acquisition and natural disasters also accounted for the delays.[17] In 2013 the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government took multiple administrative decisions to speed up construction. The 2017 Doklam standoff further raised the profile of the issue with the Modi government for border infrastructure along the China border.[17] ICBRs are present in Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.[16]

In May 2022, Indian govt sources announced establishment of the Border Infrastructure Management Authority (BIMA) which is responsible for the integrated development of the border areas including road, rail, water, power, communications infrastructure, and the Vibrant Village Program for improvement of living conditions of natives in these areas to prevent their out-migration as the border villages are considered strategic assets.[18]

Phase-1 or ICBR-1 project was conceived in 1999 with a target completion date of 2012 to construct 73 strategic ICBRs of nearly 4000 km length.[10][4] It was approved in 2005.[10] Of the 73 ICBR in Phase-1, the construction of 61 roads was assigned to BRO and remaining 12 to CPWD.[19] Of the 61 roads assigned to BRO, 12 roads of 1,064.14 km length in Ladakh, 5 roads of 116.99 km length in Himachal Pradesh, 14 roads of 355 km length in Uttarakhand, 3 roads of 61.98 km length in Sikkim, and 27 roads of 1,725.46 km length are in Arunachal Pradesh.[15] ICBR-I is seen as a successor of BRO's Project HIMANK which was initiated in 1985 for the construction of border roads in Ladakh.

As of March 2021, of the 61 ICBR-I roads assigned to BRO, connectivity on 59 roads of 3,205.16 km length have been achieved. Of these 61 roads where connectivity has been achieved, 42 roads of 1,530.38 km have been paved with the black top.[15]

ICBR-II was approved in 2020-21 fiscal budget,[9] to construct additional 104 roads of more than 6,700 km length.[8][12] The proposal for the Phase 2 was first conceived in 2013 with the goal of constructing 32 roads along the border,[14] expanded version of which was approved in 2020 with inclusion of additional roads.[14][9] Amid the India-China skirmishes, the government asked all bodies to speed up the construction of the roads.[14] Additional labour was also sent to these areas to assist in speeding up construction.[14]

ICBR-II covers construction of several roads, 18 feet wide foot tracks and border out posts (BoPs) connecting several LAC patrol points (PP) and Border Personnel Meeting (BPM) points. As of 2021, in Arunachal Pradesh under the ICBR-II India is building 57 roads, 32 helipads, 47 BoPs, 12 staging camps for ITBP and many 18 ft tracks.[9]

ICBR infrastructure is funded by the "Border Infrastructure and Management Fund" (BIMF) which provides funding for India's border infrastructures along Bangladesh, Pakistan and China borders.[9]

Spending on ICBR tripled between 2016 and 2020, from ₹4,600 crore (equivalent to ₹54 billion or US$680 million in 2023) to ₹11,800 crore (equivalent to ₹140 billion or US$1.7 billion in 2023).[20] Annual funding was as follows: INR 11,800 crore in 2020–21, INR 8,050 crore in 2019–20, INR 6,700 crore in 2018–19, INR 5450 crore in 2017–18, between INR 3,300 crore to INR 4,600 crore annually from 2008 to 2016.[19]

Due to significantly increased annual funding, the ICBR construction picked up pace after 2014:

• Road length construction completed: 4,764 km roads during 2014-20 versus 3,610 km during 2008–14.[19]
• Mountain formation-cutting completed: 470 km during 2017-20 versus 230 km during 2008–17.[19]
• Surface-clearing completed: 380 km during 2017-20 versus 170 km roads during 2008–17.[19]
• Bridges completed: 14,450 metres length during 2014-20 versus 7,270 metres during 2008–14.[19]
• Road tunnels completed: 6 tunnels during 2014-20 including Atal Tunnel at Rohtang Pass in the Himachal Pradesh versus 1 tunnel during 2008–14.[19]

Funds were also diverted from "General Staff (GS) roads"[lower-alpha 1] to ICBRs.[10]

Of the 73 ICBR of 3812 km, 61 of 3323.57 km were assigned to BRO, which have been subdivided based on their usage type. China Study Group had identified roads vital for defending the whole LAC at national level. Ministry of Defence had identified sub-national level inter-state and regional roads vital for larger military logistics, which were assigned to CPWD and state PWDs. ITBP which mans the forward staging areas and frontier posts on the LAC had identified strategic roads to connect the individual posts to the main trunk and arterial roads. Other roads include connecting inter state and state level.[21] The work structure for the ICBRs is divided among different agencies including the National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC), Central Public Works Department (CPWD), National Projects Construction Corporation (NPCC) and state public works departments.[16]

Phase-I consists of 3812 km roads.[1][16]

• Maplink: Interactive map with road.
• OSM ID: Provides a link to road on OpenStreetMap (OSM) in the form of a relation.
• Status: Status does not represent current state of the road.
• Length: Present / planned
• Comments and citation: Further information about the road including bridges and tunnels.

ICB Roads in Arunachal Pradesh[1]

In Arunachal Pradesh the ICBR project, in coordination with other government programmes, has connected a number of border outposts and frontier areas to the national highway network such as Kharsang La, Taksing, Lamang, Gelling, Kibithu and Dichu.[22] Major road projects in Arunachal Pradesh include the 'Sela Pass project' which consists of the under construction Sela Tunnel.[23][16]

Representative list of ICB roads in Arunachal Pradesh

Route of road Maplink/OSM ID	Interactive Map	District	Length	Status	Comments	Ref
Assam - Arunachal Pradesh
Orang-Kalaktang-Shergaon-Roopa- Tenga (OKSRT) 13649310		West Kameng	158 km (98 mi)	Completed in 2016	It provides alternate access to eastern flank of National Highway 13 which also goes to Tawang. Bridges at Kalaktang, Gajni, Shikari, Sher, Balemu, Bomnag, Haflong.	[24]
Arunachal Pradesh
Tato-Manigong-Tadagade 13651872		Shi Yomi	86 km (53 mi)	Partially complete	Tato is 47 km southwest of Mechuka, Manigong is 9 km west of Mechuka, Tadagade is 33 km from Manigong.	[16]
Bona-Gelling 13652936		Upper Siang	10 km (6.2 mi)	Complete	Gelling is last Indian post on LAC. Gelling lies northeast of Bona. This is an extension of the Tuting-Bona-Gelling road.	[16]
Tame Chung Chung-Taksing 13653063		Upper Subansiri	54 km (34 mi)	Completed in 2017	The road from Nacho goes to Tame Chung Chung (TCC) at Gelensiniak. From there it diverges towards Taksing and Maja (also spelt Maza), both close to the border. Work on TCC-Taksing started in 2000 but was completed in 2017.[25] The road TCC-Bidak was completed in 2018.[26][27]	[16]
Tame Chung Chung-Maja 13660521			48 km (30 mi)	Complete till Bidak		[16]
Nacho-Tame Chung Chung 13660549			78 km (48 mi)	Partially complete		[21]
Jang-Rama Sapper 13651811		Tawang	90 km (56 mi)	Completed in 2016	It provides access to Tawang and forms the northern/upper part of National Highway 13. It was completed in 2016. It is a part of the unfinished Balipara-Charduar-Tawang road.[28] (Jang also spelt as Jung)	[29]
Sangestar Tso-Kharsang La 13664340			16 km (9.9 mi)	Complete	It lies very close to and southeast of Bum La Pass, north of Tawang, east of Lumpo and it forms the part of Bum La Road. BRO ensure maintenances.[30] Image of Sangestar Tso.	[31][16]
Zemithang-Khinzemane 13664456			25 km (16 mi)	Complete	The upper portion of the road is close to the Namka Chu river.	[31][30]
Yarlung-Lamang		Shi Yomi	N/A	N/A	Lamang is last Indian outpost near Mechuka. Yarlung post is en-route Lamang.	[32][33]

ICB Roads in Uttarakhand

In Uttarakhand, the border most points of Pulam Sumda, Mana Pass, Niti Pass, Lapthal and Rimkhim, and Lipulekh have been connected.[22]

Representative list of ICB roads in Uttarakhand

Route of road Maplink/OSM ID	Interactive Map	District	Length	Status	Comments	Ref
Uttarakhand
Nelong-Naga-Jadhang/Sonam 13667660		Uttarkashi	30 km (19 mi)	Partially complete	Nelang-Naga road forks into 2 roads, one each leading to Sonam[34][35] and Jadhang IBTP border outposts (BoPs). Jadganga River bridge is on this route. The fork toward Sonam continues to Pulam Sumda. This is also known as the Nelgang-Pulam Sumda road.	[21]
Joshimath-Malari-Girthidobla-Sumna-Rimkhim 13667486		Chamoli	105 km (65 mi)	Partially complete	Bara Hoti-Lapthal disputed sector is 100 km from Joshimath. Joshimath-Malari road forks to 2 different ITBP posts at Malari, to Sumna-Rimkhim post in the east and another post to the west. Bridges at Dhak, Tamak, Suraithota, Subaigadhera[36] ITBP has 42 BoPs (border outposts) in Bara Hoti sector and Mana Pass area.[37][38]	[39][40]
Mana-Mana Pass 13667703			48 km (30 mi)	Complete	Image of Mana village. Mana Pass is located on the China–India border.	[41]
Tawaghat-Ghatiabagarh-Lipulekh 13667911		Pithoragarh	100 km (62 mi)	Complete	Lipulekh area and the pass, Kalapani territory, Kailash Mansarovar road.	[42][43]
Munsiyari-Milam 13667746				Partially complete	Milam is the last village.	[41]

ICB Roads in Ladakh

The forward most localities and border outposts of Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO), Hotspring, Demchok and Zursar have been connected. Roads connectivity has reduced their reliance on air transport.[22]

Representative list of ICB roads in Ladakh

Route of road Maplink/OSM ID	Interactive Map	District	Length	Status	Comments	Ref
Ladakh
Harong-Chushul 13671808		Leh	65 km (40 mi)	Complete	Part of the 240 km (150 mi) Spangmik-Tangtse-Harong-Chushul-Tsaga-Loma route on towards Nyoma.	[16]
Phobrang-Marsimik La-Hot Springs 13671836			70 km (43 mi)	Complete	Route from Lukung near Pangong Tso towards Hot Springs close to the LAC.	[21][41]
Darbuk-Shyok-DBO 13671859			255 km (158 mi)	Complete	Route is partially along the Shyok River and LAC. Also called the DS-DBO road or the Sub-Sector North Road.
Sasoma-Saser La 13671925			55 km (34 mi)	Partially complete	The road will provide alternate connectivity to DBO in addition to existing DS-DBO road. Image of Sasser Pass.
Koyul-Photila-Chisumle-Zurasar 13671950			120 km (75 mi)	Complete	Demchok sector. Zurasar is one of the last border posts in the area.	[41]
Himachal Pradesh - Ladakh
Leh-Upshi-Sarchu 333878		Leh	250 km (160 mi)	Complete	Part of the 428 km (266 mi) Leh–Manali Highway.
Nimmu–Padum–Darcha		Leh, Kargil, Lahaul and Spiti	285 km (177 mi)	Partially complete	First all weather road to Ladakh. Third access route to Ladakh.[44][45][46] Image represents a section below Zanskar Sumdo in Lahaul.

Under the 2022-23 budget, India intends to repopulate, upgrade or establish 500 villages near the zero-line border along the LAC from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh,[50] while China has already established 628 villages by 2021 at a cost of $6.4 billion with heavily subsidized telecommunication, internet, electricity and utilities, etc. According to this report, out of 172 (incl. 24 3G & 78 4G) out 236 villages in Ladakh had telecom connectivity. For example, 19 border villages in Chushul had no or partial communication infrastructure.[50]

Western Theater Command of China, area under integrated command.

The People's Liberation Army's Western Theater Command is responsible for the defense of China along the whole line of actual control with India.[51] The Indian Armed Forces has divided the LAC into 3 sectors - the western sector across Ladakh and the Chinese-controlled Aksai Chin, the central sector across Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand, and the eastern sector across Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.[52] Similarly, the Indian Airforce has the Prayagraj-based Central Air Command, Delhi-based Western Air Command, and Shillong-based Eastern Air Command to cover the LAC.

• Ladakh airports and advanced landing grounds (ALGs) at Daulat Beg Oldi, Fukche, Leh, Nyoma, Padum,[53] Thoise[54] and the proposed Parma Valley ALG.[55][56]
• Himachal Pradesh shares 250 km border with China.[57] Airports include Shimla Airport,[57] Kullu-Manali Airport,[57] and the proposed Rangrik.[57]
• Uttrakhand has 350 km border with Tibet.[37] Airports and ALGs include Chinyalisaur Airport and Pithoragarh Airport ALG.[37]
• Sikkim consists of the Pakyong Airport ALG.
• Arunachal Pradesh has a number of airports and ALGs at Aalo, Mechuka, Pasighat, Tawang Air Force Station, Tuting, Vijoynagar, Walong, Ziro, Daporijo, Arunachal Pradesh[58][59] and the proposed Alinye (ALG),[58][59]

• Teesta River road bridge in Sikkim, already completed in 2020 will serve Doklam sector.
• Teesta River railway bridge, under construction in July 2020 and on target for completion by December 2020.[60]
• New bridges on Brahmaputra River in Assam will serve Arunachal Pradesh in Eastern Sector.

India's Ministry of Defence (MoD) has identified at least 15 new geostrategic rail lines to be constructed near the China, Pakistan and Nepal borders for troop deployments.[61] In comparison, China has built lines up to Shigatse in Tibet, with plans to connect it to Nepal and further to India.[62] After these lines were proposed by the ministry of defense in 2013, the Government of India approved the initial surveys of all 14 lines in 2014,[63] Some of these as well as other related projects are as follows:

• Ladakh-Himachal-Uttrakhand
  • Char Dham Highway, not part of ICBR
  • Pooh–Chumar Road & Harsil-Kharcham Road. Both were announced in September 2020 in addition to the ICBR phase 1, and each will cost between INR2,000 cr to INR3,000 cr.[64][65]

• Sikkim
  • Bagrakote-Gangtok Highway: 250 km-long road originating from NH17 (NH31 as per old numbering) near Bagrakote in the Dooars to Gangtok is being upgraded to national highway standard in July 2020 by the National Highway and Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited. It passes through Algarah-Lava-Rishyap (in West Bengal on Sikkim border)-Rhenock-Rorathang-Pakyong-Ranipool to Gangtok. In addition to the existing landslide-prone NH10 Sevoke-Gangtok Highway, this will provide alternate access to the state capital Gangtok and beyond to the India-China border.[60]
• Arunachal Pradesh
  • Arunachal Frontier Highway, proposed along the India-China border and is not part of ICBR.
  • Arunachal East-West Corridor, proposed across the foothills of lower upper Arunachal Pradesh, not part of ICBR.
  • Trans-Arunachal Highway, existing operational highway.

As of sept 2021, India is constructing 31 road tunnels (up from 17 tunnels of 100 km total length planned in 2017), 20 in J&K and 11 in Ladakh, at the combined cost of INR1.4 lakh crore (~US$17.5 billion), this includes tunnels constructed by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH).[66] As of January 2023, of the tunnel projects assigned to BRO, 5 were complete, 9 were under construction ( 6 - Arunachal Pradesh, 4 - Jammu and Kashmir, 1 - Ladakh), 11 were in DPR phase, the rest have been assigned to other entities.[67] [68][19] BRO keeps 27 mountain passes open and plans to build tunnels under all of those so that traffic remains open throughout the year and the army will save several hundred crores of rupees annually presently spent on airlifting logistics supplies. Of the 13 highest motorable mountain passes in the world, 10 are in India, and out of which 8 are in Ladakh only. Out of 27 mountain passes maintained by BRO, tunnels are being constructed under 11 and the detail project report of tunnel under 9 is being prepared, tunnels will also be built under the remaining 7 mountain passes so that the army can reach the border at a faster pace with year-around all-weather connectivity through all 27 passes. Some of these tunnels have dual road and rail usage, such as the world's longest three tube rail and road tunnel under Brahmaputra. Modi government doubled the BRO's budget of GS Roads (General Staff roads for military) of BRO in 2 years, Rs2500cr in fy2021-21 to Rs3500cr in fy2022-23 to Rs5000cr in 2023–24.[69]

BRO has been constructing tunnels the strategic ICBR roads on Sino-Indian border to provide the year-round all-weather connectivity. Without these tunnels, the road access to high altitude posts on Sino-India border is closed for six months every year due to snowfall and rain, and supplies are through airlift only. These tunnels will reduce the travel time and operational costs, and eliminate the risk of avalanche and landslide. List of tunnels, from west to east along the Indo-Chinese border, is as follows:[70][71]

Tunnel construction in Himalayan areas have picked up the pace. For example, Uttrakhand has 18 existing tunnels in January 2023 and 66 more tunnels will be built in next 10 years, some of which are already under construction and others are either in DPR or planning phase.[72] In may 2023, India had 1641 ongoing tunneling projects, of which national highways had 144 tunnels of 357 km costing ₹200,000 crore including 30 tunnels (45 km) completed, 16 (120 km) under construction to be completed by fy2024-25, 54 (192 km) under the Detailed Project Report (DPR) stage.[73]

Sagarmala port development project and the National Waterways projects will also enhance geostrategic capabilities along LAC and elsewhere. Waterway projects in Assam on Brahmaputra River and its tributaries are of geostrategic importance for the movement of military assets, these include National Waterway 2 and Subansiri River.

Gohpur–Numaligarh under-river tunnel, is an under construction tunnel under the Brahmaputra river.[104]

In June 2020, it was announced that 54 villages in the Ladakh region; including the Demchok is among the 19 in Kargil, 11 in Zanskar and 7 in Nubra Valley; will receive mobile phone connectivity from Jio via the satellite connected towers under the Universal Service Obligation Funding (USOF) programme.[105]

• Uttarakhand
  • Doppler radar at Mukteshwar and Surkanda Devi[106]
  • Air defence radars, under construction, at Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Uttarkashi[107]

• Northeast Connectivity projects
• Look-East Connectivity projects
• North-South and East-West Corridor
• India-Myanmar-Thailand Friendship Highway
• BCIM Economic Corridor
• Asian Highway Network
• List of bridges on Brahmaputra River