Tsuchigumo

Tsuchigumo (土蜘蛛, literally translated "dirt/earth spider") is a historical Japanese derogatory term for renegade local clans, and also the name for a race of spider-like yōkai in Japanese folklore. Alternative names for the mythological Tsuchigumo include yatsukahagi (八握脛, roughly "eight grasping legs") and ōgumo (大蜘蛛, "giant spider").[1] In the Kojiki and in Nihon Shoki, the name was phonetically spelled with the four kanji 都知久母 (for the four morae tsu-chi-gu-mo),[2] and these words were frequently used in the Fudoki of Mutsu, Echigo, Hitachi, Settsu, Bungo and Hizen as well as others.

"Tsuchigumo" from the Konjaku Gazu Zoku Hyakki by Sekien Toriyama
Tsuchigumo, from Bakemono no e scroll, Brigham Young University

The name Tsuchigumo is believed to be derived from tuchigomori (土隠). tuchi (土) means "earth" and gomori (隠) means "hiding". The word is thought to have referred to a local clan of powerful people who did not obey the imperial court and lived in caves. As a local clan, the Tsuchigumo were described as short in stature but long in limbs, with the temperament of a wolf and the heart of an owl, and living an uncivilized life.[3][4]

Historian Sōkichi Tsuda (ja) points out that unlike Kumaso and Emishi, Tsuchigumo is not treated as a group in the Fudoki, but as an individual name. The historian Yoshiyuki Takioto (ja) also deduces that the Tsuchigumo were local chieftains with shamanism as their power background from the fact that the Tsuchigumo in the Fudoki of Kyushu appear as sorcerers related to agriculture who appease angry kami.[5]

The giant spider-like figure of the tsuchigumo as a oni-like yōkai first appeared in medieval literary works. The most representative work among these tales is The Tale of the Heike, compiled in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) in the first half of the 13th century, in which it appears under the name yamagumo (山蜘蛛, "mountain spider"). As the tsuchigumo passed through the ages, it became a more bizarre-looking yōkai.[6] In the 14th-century emakimono Tsuchigumo Sōshi, the tsuchigumo is depicted as a giant yōkai 60 meters long, and when it was exterminated, 1990 heads of the dead came out of its belly. Minamoto no Yorimitsu and Watanabe no Tsuna, who participated in the extermination of the tsuchigumo in these stories, are legendary heroes in Japan; they also appear in the legend of the powerful oni Shuten-dōji.[7] The tsuchigumo as a yōkai also appeared as the subject of Noh, Jōruri and Kabuki plays.[4]

In history

Tsuchigumo of the Katsuragi

Of the clans referred to as tsuchigumo, those of the Mount Yamato Katsuragi are particularly well known. Katsuragi Hitokotonushi Shrine (葛城一言主神社, Katsuragi Hitokotonushi Jinja) was said to be the remains where Emperor Jimmu captured tsuchigumo and buried their head, body and feet separately to prevent their grudges from harming the living.[8]

In historic Yamato Province, the unique physical characteristics of the tsuchigumo were that they were tailed people. In the Nihon Shoki, the founder of the Yoshino no Futo (吉野首) were written to be "with a glowing tail," the founder of Yoshino no Kuzu (国樔) were stated to "have tails and come along pushing rocks (磐石, iwa)," presenting the indigenous people of Yamato as non-humans. Even in the Kojiki, they shared a common trait with the people of Osaka (忍坂) (now Sakurai city) in that they were "tsuchigumo (土雲) who have grown tails."

Records from the Keiko generation and others

In the Hizen no Kuni Fudoki, there is an article writing that when Emperor Keiko made an imperial visit to Shiki island (志式島, Hirado island) (year 72 in the legends), the expedition encountered a pair of islands in the middle of sea. Seeing smoke rising from inland, the Emperor ordered an investigation of the islands, and discovered that the tsuchigumo Oomimi (大耳) lived on the smaller island, and Taremimi (垂耳) lived on the larger island. When both were captured and about to be killed, Oomimi and Taremimi lowered their foreheads to the ground and fell prostrate, and pleaded, "we will from now on make offerings to the emperor" and presented fish products and begged for pardon.

Also, in the Bungo no Kuni Fudoki, there appeared many tsuchigumo, such as the Itsuma-hime (五馬姫) of Itsuma mountain (五馬山), the Uchisaru (打猴), Unasaru (頸猴), Yata (八田), Kunimaro (國摩侶), and Amashino (網磯野), of Negi field (禰宜野), the Shinokaomi (小竹鹿臣) of Shinokaosa (小竹鹿奥), and the Ao (青) and Shiro (白) of Nezumi cavern (鼠の磐窟). Other than these, there is also the story of Tsuchigumo Yasome (土蜘蛛八十女), who made preparations in the mountains to resist against the imperial court, but was utterly defeated. This word "Yaso" (八十), literally "eighty," is a figurative term for "many," so this story is interpreted to mean that many of the female chief class opposed the Yamato imperial court, and met a heroic end, choosing to die alongside their men. In the story, Yaso, one local female chief, was greatly popular among the people, and she separated her allies from those resisting the imperial forces. Tsuchigumo Yasome's whereabouts were reported to the emperor, and for her efforts she was spared.[9]

According to writings in the Nihon Shoki, in the 12th year of emperor Keiko (year 82 in the legends), in winter, October, emperor Keiko arrived in Hayami town, Ookita (now Ooita), and heard from the queen of the land, Hayatsuhime (速津媛) that there was a big cave in the mountain, called the Nezumi cave, where two tsuchigumo, Shiro and Ao, lived. In Negino (禰疑野), Naoiri, they were informed of three more tsuchigumo named Uchizaru (打猿), Yata (八田), and Kunimaro (国摩侶, 国麻呂). These five had great amount of allies, and would not follow the emperor's commands.[10]

Yōkai tsuchigumo
Main articles: Tsuchigumo Sōshi and Tsuchigumo (Noh)
A depiction of Minamoto no Yorimitsu slaying tsuchigumo yokai, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi from the beginning of the Ansei period. The large version continues for 2 more images.
Two tsuba (sword guard) depicting Minamoto no Yorimitsu trying to cut a tsuchigumo with a tachi named 'Hizamaru'. made by Unno Yoshimori I (left), Gochiku Sadakatsu (right). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

From the Japanese middle ages (Kamakura/Muromachi/Azuchi-Momoyama periods, or the late 12th to the early 17th centuries) onward, tsuchigumo began to be depicted as giant, monstrous spiders.

A commonly cited early text depicting the yōkai tsuchigumo is The Tale of the Heike, or rather some variant texts of the Heike. This work, which was passed down orally among biwa lute players, has a complicated textual history and numerous variants, including the massively expanded Genpei Jōsuiki, and some versions include an extended passage on swords, known as the "Sword Scroll", or tsurugi-no-maki. This is regarded as one of the most important and influential texts that depict the conflict between Yorimitsu and the tsuchigumo, and is the source for many later artistic representations.[11] It describes Yorimitsu's using the sword Hizamaru to defeat a yamagumo, which led to his renaming it 'Kumokiri' (蜘蛛切, "Spider-Cutter").[12] At present, Daikaku-ji Temple, Hakone Shrine and an individual, have tachi that have been handed down as Hizamaru, which are also called by other names such as 'Kumokiri', 'Hoemaru' and 'Usumidori' based on various legends.[13]

Works such as the 14th-century picture scroll Tsuchigumo Sōshi and the 15th-century Noh drama Tsuchigumo envision various versions of a legend in which Minamoto no Yorimitsu, also known as Raikō, a famous 10th-century general and ancestor of the Minamoto clan defeat an enormous spider yōkai referred to as a tsuchigumo or yamagumo ("earth spider" or "mountain spider", respectively). In some versions, Yorimitsu and his retainer Watanabe no Tsuna pursue the spider, which takes various forms such as a beautiful woman, and when they defeat it they cut it open and skulls pour out of its torso, while in others, Yorimitsu is incapacitated and a young retainer hunts the spider down in his stead.

Tsuchigumo Sōshi (see scrolling image below) interestingly contains a visual depiction that doesn't appear to match the accompanying text, as the text has Yorimitsu and Tsuna take down an enormous, 60-foot monster that they later realize is a giant spider, but the imagery shows them doing battle with two oni, or ogre-demons, resembling Gozu and Mezu, which perhaps represent another of the tsuchigumo's transformations.

Tsuchigumo Sōshi, parts eight through thirteen

See also

Media related to Tsuchigumo at Wikimedia Commons

References

Citations
  1. 岩井宏實 (2000). 暮しの中の妖怪たち. 河出文庫. 河出書房新社. pp. 156頁. ISBN 978-4-309-47396-3.
  2. 京極夏彦・多田克己 編著 (2008). 妖怪画本 狂歌百物語. 国書刊行会. pp. 293–294頁. ISBN 978-4-3360-5055-7.
  3. Makoto Sahara (Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties) (1987). 体系 日本の歴史 1 日本人の誕生. Shogakukan. p. 178. ISBN 978-4096220016.
  4. 土蜘蛛 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 12 February 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  5. Itaru Matsueda [in Japanese] (2006). 象徴図像研究―動物と象徴. Gensōsha. pp. 76–100. ISBN 978-4862090072.
  6. Katsuhiko Fujii (8 February 2021). 土蜘蛛～山中の異形の妖怪も、元は善良な民だった⁉ (in Japanese). ABC Ark, Inc. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  7. Sachie Miyamoto, Azusa Kumagai (2007). 日本の妖怪の謎と不思議. Gakken. p. 74. ISBN 978-4056047608.
  8. 村上健司 編著 (2000). 妖怪事典. 毎日新聞社. pp. 222頁. ISBN 978-4-620-31428-0.
  9. 義江明子『古代女性史への招待――“妹の力”を超えて』
  10. 日本書紀 の参考部分：日本書紀 巻第七 日本書紀（朝日新聞社本）《景行天皇十二年（壬午八二）十月》冬十月。到碩田国。・・・因名碩田也。・・・到速見邑。有女人。曰速津媛。・・・茲山有大石窟。曰鼠石窟。有二土蜘蛛。住其石窟。一曰青。二曰白。又於直入県禰疑野、有三土蜘蛛。一曰打猿。二曰八田。三曰国摩侶。是五人並其為人強力。亦衆類多之。皆曰。不従皇命。
  11. Reider 2013, p. 56.
  12. Shida 1983, p. 389.
  13. Tsumugu Japan art & culture. Yomiuri shimbun.

Works cited

Further reading
  • Asiatic Society of Japan. Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan: Volume 7. The Society. (1879)
  • Aston, William George. Shinto: the way of the gods. Longmans, Green, and Co. (1905)
  • Brinkley, Frank and Dairoku Kikuchi. A history of the Japanese people from the earliest times to the end of the Meiji era. The Encyclopædia Britannica Co. (1915)
  • Horne, Charles Francis. The Sacred books and early literature of the East. Parke, Austin, and Lipscomb: (1917)
  • Monsters, Animals, and Other Worlds: A Collection of Short Medieval Japanese Tales. Edited by Keller Kimbrough and Haruo Shirane. New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press, 2018. pp. 23-30. https://doi.org/10.7312/kimb18446-003
  • Oyler, Elizabeth (2008). "The Nue and Other Monsters in Heike Monogatari". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 68 (2): 1–32. JSTOR 40213671.
  • Reider, Noriko T. (2016). "A Tale of an Earth Spider (Tsuchigumo Zōshi): The Emergence of a Shape-Shifting Killer Female Spider". Seven Demon Stories from Medieval Japan. University Press of Colorado. pp. 62–86. ISBN 978-1-60732-489-8. JSTOR j.ctt1g04zg4.6.
  • Reider, Noriko T. Japanese Demon Lore: Oni, From Ancient Times to the Present. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 2010. pp. 165-169 (two examples of Tsuchigumo in modern media).
  • Rodríguez, Amaury A. García (1 September 2010). "Itinerarios de una apropiación crítica: Raikō y La araña de tierra". Estudios de Asia y África. 3 (143): 535–565. doi:10.24201/eaa.v45i3.1992. JSTOR 25822400. S2CID 258541663.
  • Studio international, Volume 18. Studio Trust. (1900)
  • Takeuchi, Melinda (1987). "Kuniyoshi's 'Minamoto Raikō' and 'the Earth Spider': Demons and Protest in Late Tokugawa Japan". Ars Orientalis. 17: 5–38. JSTOR 4629355.
  • Trench, K. Paul. Nihongi: chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697: Volume 1. The Society. Trübner. (1896)
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