Alfred Deakin

Deakin was born on 3 August 1856 in his parents' cottage at 90 George Street, Fitzroy, Melbourne, Victoria.[2] He was of English and Welsh descent, the younger of two children born to Sarah (née Bill) and William Deakin.[lower-alpha 1] His father left school at the age of 14 and became a travelling salesman. He met his future wife while travelling through Abergavenny, and they married at Grosmont, Monmouthshire in 1849.[3] Britain was experiencing an economic depression associated with the Panic of 1847, and they decided to migrate to Australia.[4] The Deakins arrived in Adelaide, South Australia, in March 1850.[5] Their first child Catherine (known as Kate) was born in July 1850, at which point her father was working as a storekeeper and clerk. The family moved to Melbourne as a result of the Victorian gold rush, which began the following year.[6] William Deakin initially struggled to find steady employment, but later became involved with the carrying and coaching trade, transporting people and goods; he was listed as a carrier at the time of his son's birth in 1856. By the early 1870s he was working with Cobb & Co. as a manager, inspector, and accountant, earning a salary that allowed he and his family to maintain a comfortable middle-class lifestyle.[7]

Deakin as a young man

Deakin spent his early years in Fitzroy, then lived briefly in Emerald Hill (now South Melbourne) before his family settled in South Yarra in about 1863. Rather than build an entirely new house, his father transported a wooden cottage from Fitzroy to South Yarra and then had it brick-nogged. His parents and sister would live there for the rest of their lives.[8] At the age of four, Deakin was sent to join his ten-year-old sister in Kyneton, a small country town where she was attending a girls' boarding school run by the Thompson sisters. He was the only male pupil at the school.[9] It was unusual for children to be sent away at such a young age, and his biographer Judith Brett has speculated that their mother may have been suffering from a bout of depression or recovering from a stillbirth.[10] The Thompson sisters eventually moved their school to Melbourne, which Deakin continued to attend until the age of seven. In early 1864, he was enrolled at Melbourne Grammar School as a day-boy.[9] He attended Melbourne Grammar for eight years, where he was a good student without excelling academically. He later recalled that he had been "an incessantly restless, random and at times studiously mischievous pupil", and regretted that he had not been made to work harder.[11] Deakin was also passionate about Australian rules football a game which he played during his youth, though it is not known for which clubs or teams he played in.[12]

In 1871, aged 15, Deakin passed the matriculation exam for the University of Melbourne.[13] He formed an ambition to become a barrister, and began attending evening classes the following year. He could not afford to study full-time, working during the day as a schoolteacher and private tutor. At the time, the Victorian Bar did not require a complete university degree for admission, only passing grades in relevant legal subjects. Deakin was consequently admitted to the bar in September 1877, aged 21, without ever graduating from university.[14] According to his biographer John La Nauze, his legal studies were "the least important part of his education" during his time at university.[15] He was a frequent speaker in the Melbourne University Debating Society, where he was mentored by Charles Henry Pearson,[16] and was also involved in the Eclectic Society. He spent much of his spare time reading, "from Chaucer to the great writers of his own time".[17] For some time Deakin was "more interested in dreams of being a dramatist, a poet or a philosopher" rather than a lawyer. He wrote numerous works of blank verse and narrative poetry, and in 1875 published Quentin Massys, a drama in five acts.[18]

Deakin initially had difficulty in obtaining briefs as a barrister. In May 1878, he met David Syme, the owner of the Melbourne daily The Age, who paid him to contribute reviews, leaders and articles on politics and literature. In 1880, he became editor of The Leader, The Age's weekly. During this period Syme converted him from supporting free trade to protectionism.[19][20] He became active in the Australian Natives' Association and began to practise vegetarianism.[21] He became a lifelong spiritualist, holding the office of President of the Victorian Spiritualists' Union.[19][20][22]

Alfred Deakin in 1898

After 1890, Deakin refused all offers of cabinet posts and devoted his attention to the movement for federation. He was Victoria's delegate to the Australasian Federal Conference, convened by Sir Henry Parkes in Melbourne in 1890, which agreed to hold an intercolonial convention to draft a federal constitution. He was a leading negotiator at the Federal Conventions of 1891, which produced a draft constitution that contained much of the Constitution of Australia, as finally enacted in 1900. Deakin was also a delegate to the second Australasian Federal Convention, which opened in Adelaide in March 1897 and concluded in Melbourne in January 1898. He was somewhat out of sympathy with the tendency of the convention, and sided with the majority in only 55 percent of divisions; fewer occasions than all but five delegates.[27] He supported wide taxation powers for the federal government, successfully opposed conservative plans for the indirect election of senators, and attempted to weaken the powers of the Senate, in particular seeking to prevent it from being able to defeat money bills.[20][24] He had told the National Australasian Convention of 1891 'To introduce an American Senate into a British constitution is to destroy both'.[28] Deakin often had to reconcile differences and find ways out of apparently impossible difficulties. Between and after these meetings, he travelled through the country addressing public meetings and he was partly responsible for the large majority in Victoria at each referendum.[19]

In 1900 Deakin travelled to London with Edmund Barton and Charles Kingston to oversee the passage of the federation bill through the Imperial Parliament, and took part in the negotiations with Joseph Chamberlain, the Colonial Secretary, who insisted on the right of appeal from the High Court of Australia to the Privy Council. Eventually a compromise was reached, under which constitutional (inter se) matters could be finalised in the High Court, but other matters could be appealed to the Privy Council.[20]

Deakin defined himself as an "independent Australian Briton", favouring a self-governing Australia but loyal to the British Empire. He certainly did not see federation as marking Australia's independence from Britain. On the contrary, Deakin was a supporter of closer empire unity, serving as president of the Victorian branch of the Imperial Federation League, a cause he believed to be a stepping stone to a more spiritual world unity.

Photo in 1898 of the future 1st Prime Minister of Australia Edmund Barton and 2nd Prime Minister of Australia Alfred Deakin

The first and second Prime Ministers of Australia, Edmund Barton and Alfred Deakin, amongst the 1901 cabinet

In 1901 Deakin was elected to the first federal Parliament as MP for the Division of Ballaarat, and became Attorney-General of Australia in the ministry headed by Edmund Barton. He was active, especially in drafting bills for the Public Service, arbitration and the High Court. His second reading speech on the Immigration Restriction Bill to implement the White Australia policy was notable for its blatant racism,[29] including arguing that it was necessary to exclude the Japanese because of their good qualities, which would place them at an advantage over European Australians. His March 1902 speech in favour of the bill establishing the High Court of Australia helped overcome significant opposition to its establishment.[20]

Deakin attempted to resign from cabinet in April 1902, writing two letters of resignation to Barton. The primary cause was his opposition to the government's proposed 50% pay rise for MPs, but his wife had also been in poor health. He wrote to Barton that "my retirement will be a relief from a strain which has been severe at times",[30] and hoped to still assist the government as a backbencher. Barton replied that his departure would "break my heart" and "wreck the ministry". He agreed to drop the proposed pay rise and Deakin agreed to continue as a minister.[31]

In May 1902, Barton left the country to attend the coronation of Edward VII and 1902 Colonial Conference. Deakin was Acting Prime Minister of Australia until Barton's return in October 1902.[31] During this time he dealt with the resignation of Governor-General Lord Hopetoun over a salary dispute and conflict with the South Australian government over the external affairs power, which was resolved in favour of the federal government.[32] He also secured the passage of the Customs Tariff 1902, which the Senate had twice returned to the House with a series of proposed amendments. In view of the urgent need for government revenue, Deakin successfully convinced the House and his fellow ministers to accept the amendments, but in a way that avoided setting a new constitutional precedent over money bills.[33]

Deakin continued his efforts to establish a federal judiciary when parliament resumed in May 1903. The government eventually passed a compromise bill, the Judiciary Act 1903, which established a High Court of three judges. Concessions were made on the number of judges (three rather than five) as well as their salary and pension entitlements.[34] In July 1903, Deakin was tasked with securing the passage of the Conciliation and Arbitration Bill which had been drafted by Charles Kingston. He made the second reading speech on the bill at short notice, following Kingston's surprise resignation from cabinet. He argued the bill, which would introduce a compulsory arbitration scheme for industrial disputes, would "bring both employer and employee before the bar of a tribunal which would mete out even-handed justice".[35] However, in early September the government unexpectedly abandoned the bill. The ALP, with the "mischievous support" of the opposition, had passed an amendment extending its provisions to state railway workers, which Deakin regarded as unconstitutional. He received much of the criticism for the decision to withdraw the bill.[36]

Parliament was dissolved a month after Deakin took office, with the 1903 Australian federal election called for mid-December.[40][41] He was the first prime minister to call an early election, to catch his opponents off guard and take advantage of a large number of urban educated female voters who could cast a ballot for the first time.[42]

Deakin outlined the government's platform at a speech in Ballarat on 29 October 1903.[43] He called on voters to unite behind "fiscal peace and preferential trade for a White Australia". The "fiscal peace" to which he referred was an end to conflict over the recently enacted tariff, while "preferential trade" referred to the idea of Imperial Preference, which Deakin hoped would bring Australia closer to Britain and the rest of the Empire.[40] Reid continued to campaign on unrestricted free trade, while the ALP focused on class issues, particularly the need for compulsory arbitration, and was rewarded with large gains in both houses.[44] The final result in the House was an effective three-way tie between Deakin's Liberal Protectionists, Reid's Free Traders, and Chris Watson's Labor Party.[45]

Inspired by the ongoing Ashes series, in a January 1904 speech Deakin used an uncharacteristic sporting analogy to call for the establishment of majority government and a two-party system:[45]

What kind of a game of cricket could you have, if you had three elevens in the field instead of two, and one sometimes played on one side, sometimes on the other, and sometimes for itself?

He went on to call it "absolutely essential" for the three parties to be reduced to two "as soon as possible", although he stated that he was unsure which parties should merge.[45] Deakin's analogy passed into common usage to describe the unstable party system in the first decade after Federation.[46] However, according to Brett (2017) the analogy was imperfect, as realistically the Labor Party and Free Traders would never agree to an alliance; Deakin's party was an obligatory partner in any coalition government.[47]

Deakin sought to form an "understanding" with the ALP during the parliamentary recess after the election, but made little progress. When parliament resumed in March 1904, he introduced a modified Conciliation and Arbitration Bill, but ignored Labor's requests for its provisions to be extended to state public servants.[48] He believed that the government did not have the constitutional authority to do so, whereas the ALP (and some radicals within his own party) thought the issue should be determined by the High Court. On 22 April, Andrew Fisher moved for the bill to be amended to cover state public servants. The amendment passed by 38 votes to 29, which Deakin treated as a motion of no confidence in his government. He tendered his resignation as prime minister on the same day and was formally succeeded by Watson on 27 April.[49]

Deakin's motivations for relinquishing office have been debated. He was under no obligation to resign, as the ALP had not intended for the amendment to be treated as a confidence motion. It has been suggested he thought forcing Watson into office unprepared would demonstrate the ALP's weakness as a party of government. However, his diaries also suggest he was under considerable personal strain and could have been "simply courting defeat to relieve himself of the burden of office".[50]

Cartoon of Deakin and Reid by Livingston Hopkins

Deakin's supporters began to lobby him to seek a return to government in 1905. He was reinvigorated by a trip to Western Australia early in the year, where he was struck by the development of the Eastern Goldfields and received encouragement from John Forrest and Austin Chapman.[66] Most importantly, Chris Watson wrote privately that he would have the "active support" of the Labor Party if he resumed office.[67]

On 24 June 1905, the weekend before parliament resumed, Deakin delivered a two-hour speech to his constituents in Ballarat. He claimed the pragmatic middle ground for his party, criticising the policies of Labor and the Free Traders as vague and impractical, and further accused Reid of breaking their fiscal truce.[68] The significance of his address was elevated two days later when The Age stated that "Mr Deakin's Ballarat speech, read in any light, is a notice to Mr Reid to quit".[69] Although Deakin denied that this interpretation was correct, Reid took it to mean he had withdrawn his support and stated as such in parliament.[70] Deakin then successfully moved an amendment to the address-in-reply, while denying it had been premeditated. By convention, this was treated as a motion of no confidence. Reid sought a dissolution and early election, but was refused by the Governor-General, Lord Northcote; Deakin was then commissioned to form a new government.[71]

Deakin resumed office in mid-1905, and retained it for three years. During this, the longest and most successful of his terms as Prime Minister, his government was responsible for much policy and legislation giving shape to the Commonwealth during its first decade, including bills to create an Australian currency. The Copyright Act was passed in 1905, the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics was established in 1906, Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology was established in 1908 and the Quarantine Act was passed in 1908.[72]

In 1906 Deakin's government amended the Judiciary Act to increase the size of the High Court to five judges, as envisaged in the constitution, and appointed Isaac Isaacs and H. B. Higgins to fill the two additional seats. The first protective Federal tariff, the Australian Industries Protection Act was passed. This "New Protection" measure attempted to force companies to pay fair wages by setting conditions for tariff protection, although the Commonwealth had no powers over wages and prices.[20][72]

The Papua Act of 1905 established an Australian administration for the former British New Guinea and Deakin appointed Hubert Murray as Lieutenant-Governor of Papua in 1908, who ruled it for a 32-year period as a benevolent paternalist. His government passed a bill for the transfer of control of the Northern Territory from South Australia to the Commonwealth, which became effective in 1911.[20][72] As prime minister Deakin championed the Seat of Government Act 1904, that had ordained the establishment of the Commonwealth's capital at Dalgety, and vigorously, if unsuccessfully, fought the move to relocate the capital to the Canberra area.[73]

In December 1907, he introduced the first bill to establish compulsory military service, which was also strongly supported by Labor's Watson and Billy Hughes. He had long opposed the naval agreements to fund Royal Navy protection of Australia although Barton had agreed in 1902 that the Commonwealth would take over such funding from the colonies. In 1906 he announced that Australia would purchase destroyers, and in 1907 travelled to an Imperial Conference in London to discuss the issue, without success. In 1908 he invited Theodore Roosevelt's Great White Fleet to visit Australia, in a symbolic act of independence from Britain. The Surplus Revenue Act of 1908 provided £250,000 for naval expenditure, although these funds were first applied by the Andrew Fisher Labor government, creating the first independent navy in the British empire.[20][72]

Deakin did not call an early election, allowing the parliament to run to its maximum permissible length.[lower-alpha 4] He expected a "sweeping victory", anticipating that after being confirmed in office he could complete his legislative agenda, attend the 1911 Imperial Conference and then hand over to a successor.[80] The April 1910 federal election was the first to present a straight choice between two alternative parties. To Deakin's surprise, the ALP won a clear majority, gaining 16 seats in the House and sweeping the Senate. In what he called "the Waterloo of the Liberal Party", many former Protectionists lost their seats, and Deakin himself won by fewer than 500 votes.[77] While there were a number of factors in Labor's victory, Deakin's perceived hypocrisy in the creation of the Fusion was frequently brought up in the campaign and likely cost the Liberals the votes of many of his former supporters.[81]

The final years of Deakin's political career coincided with the early stages of a degenerative neurological condition, with memory loss as the primary feature. In his personal diaries he meticulously documented his loss of function and increasing anguish at his decline.[91] Other health records suggest he also suffered from chronic hypertension.[87] He had hoped that his symptoms were due to stress and leaving politics would aid his recovery, but instead found that "when I stepped out of Parliament in some mysterious fashion all my memories commenced to die or disappear".[88] Contemporary doctors were unable to give him a clear diagnosis, other than a 1913 opinion of "hyperneurasthenia".[87] Later writers have suggested vascular dementia, early-onset Alzheimer's disease, neurosyphilis, and Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency from vegetarianism as possible causes of his illness.[92]

Graves of Alfred and Pattie Deakin at St Kilda Cemetery

In October 1914, Deakin wrote that he had "no continuity of memory or argument" and relied upon "impressions that fade or are forgotten in a few minutes and often in a few seconds".[89] In November 1915, he wrote that he could remember what he had read for only a few hours and that "no collapse could be ghastlier". The following month, he wrote that "I have now become a mere juggler with myself [...] my helpless attempts to read the riddle of my mind and thought must be frankly abandoned".[93] At her urging, Deakin and his wife left Australia in September 1916 to seek advice from specialists in England and the United States, and also to visit their daughter Vera in London.[94] They returned to Australia in early 1917, after which he was generally confined to his home in South Yarra and only saw family members.[95]

Deakin's funeral procession leaving Parliament House, Melbourne

Deakin died at his home on 7 October 1919, aged 63. His official cause of death was given as meningoencephalitis.[20] He was granted a state funeral at Queen's Hall in Parliament House, Melbourne, after a period lying in state.[96] He was interred next to his parents in the non-denominational section of St Kilda Cemetery, joined by his widow Pattie following her death in 1934.[97]