Christian feminism

The division of Protestant belief systems into different denominations allowed for women to acquire far more leadership positions in the church, as certain denominations then had the freedom to advocate for female leadership.[17] In both mainline and liberal branches of Protestant Christianity, women are ordained as clergy. Even some theologically conservative denominations, such as The Church of the Nazarene[19] and Assemblies of God,[20] ordain women as pastors. However, the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Southern Baptist Convention (the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S.),[21] as well as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and many churches in the American Evangelical movement prohibit women from entering clerical positions.[22] Some Christian feminists believe that as women have greater opportunity to receive theological training, they will have greater influence on how scriptures are interpreted by those that deny women the right to become ministers.[23]

Many of the Christian ideals concerning gender stem from interpretations of the Bible.[24] Christian feminists have often argued that the Bible is problematic, not because of the text itself, but because of the Christian scholars who have interpreted the scripture throughout time.[23] An example of these inconsistencies can be found in the creation story of Adam and Eve; some Evangelicals believe that Adam and Eve were created at the same time, while others believe that Eve was made from the rib of Adam.[25] There is also wide debate within many Christian denominations over the fault of Eve concerning the consumption of the forbidden fruit, and the entrance of sin into the world.[25] Historically, a great deal of blame has been placed on Eve, but many Christian Feminists have worked to reframe the story, and shift the blame equally between both parties, as both partook of the fruit.[26] The story of Adam and Eve is just one example of a text which Christian feminists believe is patriarchal in nature due to its interpretation.[27] Some Christian Feminists made the decision to abandon direct scriptural use in their fight for equality, while others relied on verses that opposed patriarchal ideals, pointing out the inconsistencies within the Bible.[28] The following passages act as examples of these inconsistencies.

• Galatians 3:28. "There is neither...male nor female for all are one in Christ Jesus."
• Deborah of the Old Testament was a prophetess and "judge of Israel"[29]
• Genesis 2:20. The word translated "help" or "helper" is the same Hebrew word, "ēzer," which the Old Testament uses more than 17 times to describe the kind of help that God brings to His people in times of need; e.g., "Thou art my help (ēzer) and my deliverer," and "My help (ēzer) comes from the Lord." Never once in all these references is the word used to indicate subordination or servitude to another human being.[30]
• Genesis 3:16. "To the woman he (God) said, 'I will greatly increase your pains in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.'"
• 1 Timothy 2:12. "But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence."
• 1 Corinthians 11:7–9. "For a man ought not to cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God, but woman is the glory of man. For man was not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for woman, but woman for man."
• 1 Corinthians 14:34. "The women should keep silent in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but should be in submission, as the Law also says."
• Colossians 3:18. "Wives, submit to your husbands, as is fitting in the Lord."
• 1 Peter 3:1. "Likewise, wives, be subject to your own husbands, so that even if some do not obey the word, they may be won without a word by the conduct of their wives."
• Ephesians 5:22–24. "Wives, be subject to your husbands as you are to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife just as Christ is the head of the church, the body of which he is the Savior. Just as the church is subject to Christ, so also wives ought to be, in everything, to their husbands."

Translations of biblical scriptures are examples where social hierarchy may influence the actual meaning of biblical scriptures. Although the pronoun him is often used in the scripture, Robert Alter, a Hebrew professor, argues that it is not "anatomically masculine."[31] These variations in pronouns may lead to exacerbating the division between feminine and masculine roles and encourage the gender hierarchy. Furthermore, the separation between male and female is implied not only by the use of gendered pronouns, but also by the absence of representation of women and gendering qualities and tasks. Saint Augustine, a bishop of Hippo, wrote a tractate on John's Gospel and in the section about the Wisdom of God, he does not mention any female figure or femininity that the Old Testament regards within Wisdom literature.[32] While it is unclear the reason behind the absence of women being mentioned in Saint Augustine's tractates, modern scholars argue that this information is too crucial in understanding the Wisdom in the Old Testament to be omitted.[32]

Painting depicting Bathsheba and David mourning the death of their son, Nathan.

On the other hand, by designating qualities to either be feminine or masculine, it creates expectations of how men and women must act. In the Book of Kings, they emphasize the role of mothers by the grief that they must display towards the death of their family members. Thus, even in royalty, the role of a mother is valued over queenship. For instance, in Samuel 2, when Bathsheba mourned the death of her son, she establishes her role as a mother. Then, as there are specific traits that are expected of women, if they fail to meet these qualities, then they are characterized as masculine.[31] Contrasting Bathsheba's display of her maternal role is Athaliah's massacre of the royals of Judah that led her to become the monarch for several years. Caused by her ruthlessness and headstrong personality, Athaliah is often described to display masculinity but also described as not being entirely masculine because of her identity as a woman.[31]

Conservative religious groups are often at philosophical odds with many feminist and liberal religious groups over abortion and the use of birth control. Scholars like sociologist Flann Campbell have argued that conservative religious denominations tend to restrict male and female sexuality[33][34] by prohibiting or limiting birth control use,[35] and condemning abortion as sinful murder.[36][37] Some Christian feminists (like Teresa Forcades) contend that a woman's "right to control her pregnancy is bounded by considerations of her own well-being" and that restricted access to birth control and abortion disrespect her God-given free will.[38]

Bruce P. Blackshaw and Nicholas Colgrove, Philosophy scholars, along with Daniel Rodger, a health professional argue the inconsistencies of the arguments of those opposing abortion.[39] The researchers find that pro-life activists often use overgeneralization in their arguments that cause them to believe that their belief applies to all women regardless of varying priorities, virtues, and beliefs that they practice. Moreover, they emphasize the importance of listening to various perspectives in especially in a topic such as abortion where these choices are made on a case-by-case basis. In addition, there may also be inconsistencies in the reasoning of pro-life activists as to why abortion is immoral. For instance, some may utilize Don Marquis' term, the "future of value," which entails assuming that the embryo will have potential contributions to society if carried until birth.[39]

A number of socially progressive mainline Protestant denominations as well as certain Jewish organizations and the group Catholics for a Free Choice have formed the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice.[40] The RCRC often works as a liberal feminist organization and in conjunction with other American feminist groups to oppose conservative religious denominations which, from their perspective, seek to suppress the natural reproductive rights of women.[41]

In general, many Christian Feminist scholars hope to work towards a society in which female sexuality is not, in their opinion, condemned by the church, but acknowledged as a natural part of the human existence.[42] During the Reformation, recognized theologians such as Martin Luther and John Calvin stressed the importance of chastity and marriage, leading to further repression of female sexuality within the Christian tradition.[43] Many Christian Feminists have stated that men in powerful religious positions have often used the scriptures, and teachings from theologians such as Calvin and Luther to both dominate and repress women's sexuality, a problem which Christian Feminists believe needs to be solved immediately.[42]

Female Centered Depiction of the Birth of Christ

Some Christian feminists believe that gender equality within the church cannot be achieved without rethinking the portrayal and understanding of God as a masculine being.[38] The theological concept of Sophia, usually seen as replacing or synonymous with the Holy Spirit in the Trinity, is often used to fulfill this desire for symbols which reflect women's religious experiences.[44] How Sophia is configured is not static, but usually filled with emotions and individual expression.[15] For some Christian feminists, the Sophia concept is found in a search for women who reflect contemporary feminist ideals in both the Old and New Testament. Some figures used for this purpose include the Virgin Mary, Mary Magdalene,[45] Eve,[46] and Esther.[47] Others see God as entirely gender-transcendent,[48] or focus on the feminine aspects of God and Jesus.[38] A female depiction of the Christ figure, known as Christa, recently arose in an attempt to allow for the power of the Christ figure to be applied to both the masculine and the feminine.[42] Some Christian feminists use and promote gender-neutral or feminine language and imagery to describe God or Christ. Christian Feminists also call for a gender neutral reading of the Bible, as male pronouns are heavily used as compared to female pronouns throughout the text.[49] The United Church of Christ describes its New Century Hymnal, published in 1995, as "the only hymnal released by a Christian church that honors in equal measure both male and female images of God."[50]

There have been multiple Popes, like Pope John Paul II and Pope Francis, who have referenced a type of Feminism in their addresses to the public. Pope Francis is quoted saying the "irreplaceable role of the woman in the family ... [t]he gifts of -delicacy ... which are a richness of the feminine spirit, represent a genuine force for the life of the family ... without which the human vocation would be unrealizable."[59] Some men and women took Pope Francis words as a "vivid hope" that women will take a more prominent role in the Catholic Church.[60] These same women and men also believe that "Radical Feminism" is the cause for the teachings of then Pope John Paul II to be viewed as negative, they also believe that Pope John Paul II was taking great strides, at least for his time, to include women in the church.[61] These critics of modern-day feminism believe that the negativity is not pointed in the right direction for the women's place in the Roman Catholic church.