Abbas ibn Ali

In an appointment that violated earlier agreements with Ali's eldest son Hasan,[4] the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya (r. 661–680) designated his son Yazid (r. 680–683) as his successor in 676.[5] Yazid is often presented by Muslim historians as a debaucher who openly violated the Islamic norms,[6][7][8] and his nomination was indeed met with resistance at the time from sons of some prominent companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, including Husayn ibn Ali.[9][10] On Mu'awiya's death and Yazid's accession in 680, the latter instructed the governor of Medina to secure Husayn's pledge of allegiance by force, and Husayn immediately left for Mecca to avoid recognizing Yazid as the caliph.[11] He was accompanied by some relatives, including Abbas.[1]

After receiving letters of support from Kufans, whose intentions were confirmed by his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil, Husayn left Mecca for Kufa on 8 or 10 Dhu al-Hijja (10 or 12 September 680), accompanied by few relatives and supporters.[11] A tradition attributed to Husayn identifies his intention as fighting the tyranny of Yazid, even though it would cost his life, as reported in al-Irshad, a biographical work by the prominent Shia scholar al-Mufid (d. 1022).[12][13] Husayn similarly wrote in his will for his brother Ibn Hanafiyya that he had not set out to seek "corruption or oppression" but rather to "enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong."[14] At any rate, on their way to Kufa, Husayn's small caravan was intercepted by Yazid's army and forced to camp in the desert land of Karbala on 2 Muharram 61 (2 October 680) away from water and fortifications.[11] The promised Kufan support did not materialize as the new governor of Kufa, Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (d. 686), killed the envoy of Husayn and intimidated Kufan tribal chiefs.[11]

On 7 Muharram,[15] on orders of Ibn Ziyad, the Umayyad commander Umar ibn Sa'd (d. 686) cut off Husayn's access to the Euphrates river.[16][11] Abbas and some fifty companions were nevertheless able to bring back some water to Husayn's camp in a night sortie.[11] Despite this attempt, the Islamicist L. Veccia Vaglieri (d. 1989) believes that the camp suffered from thirst for three days.[17] Among other experts, D. Pinault similarly writes that the camp suffered from thirst and hunger during the siege,[18] and the opinion of A. Hamdar is close.[19] Karbala has a hot desert climate.[20][21]

Ibn Sa'd was instructed by Ibn Ziyad not to let Husayn leave unless he pledged his allegiance to Yazid.[16] Husayn did not submit to Yazid,[11][17] but negotiated with Ibn Ziyad through Ibn Sa'd to be allowed to retreat and avoid bloodshed. The governor did not relent, however,[17][11] and finally ordered Ibn Sa'd to fight, kill, and disfigure Husayn and his supporters unless they pledged allegiance to Yazid, in which case their fate would be decided later.[11]

As a member of the Banu Kilab, the Umayyad commander Shamir ibn Dhi al-Jawshan acquired safe passage for Abbas and his three (full) brothers from Ibn Ziyad. According to the early historian Abu Mikhnaf (d. 773–774), Ibn Ziyad's letter of protection was sent to Abbas and his brothers, who refused it, "God's protection is better than the one offered by Sumayya's son [Ibn Ziyad]." Shamir extended again this offer to Abbas and his brothers on the eve of the battle, but they remained defiant and pledged their full support to Husayn.[1]

Ibn Sa'd decided to attack on Tasu'a (9 Muharram) after the afternoon prayer. As the Umayyad army approached, however, Husayn dispatched Abbas and some companions, who convinced Ibn Sa'd to delay the confrontation until the following day.[1][11] Husayn now besieged his followers in a speech to leave and not risk their lives for his sake, after which Abbas was the first to renew his support, saying that he would follow his brother in life or death.[1] Nearly all those present stayed with Husayn until the end.[11][21][22] Husayn and his companions spent that night praying and reading the Quran,[23] as reported by the Shia jurist Ibn Tawus (d. 1266) and in most maqatil works.[24] On this night, Zaynab bint Ali is said to have reminded her half-brother Abbas of their father's wish for the latter to be the reserves of Karbala, and to be to Husayn as Ali was to Muhammad. This Abbas confirmed and swore to do.[25] There is a report by Ibn Tawus that Abbas was killed on Tasu'a in a failed sally to bring water,[2][24] though most traditions place his death on Ashura.[2]

Abbas, riding a white horse in the Battle of Karbala, oil on canvas,
c. 1868–1933

On the morning of Ashura (10 Muharram), Husayn organized his supporters, some seventy-two men,[17] and designated Abbas as his standard-bearer, an indication of his privileged position among the companions.[1] Husayn then spoke to the enemy lines and asked them why they considered it lawful to kill the grandson of Muhammad.[17] The Umayyad commander al-Hurr ibn Yazid al-Tamimi defected to Husayn's side, probably after this speech.[26] The Umayyad army then showered the camp with arrows,[17] thus commencing the battle which lasted from morning till sunset and consisted of incidents of single combat, skirmishes, assaults, and retreats.[11] On one occasion, Abbas helped rescue a group of companions who were surrounded by enemy horsemen.[1] By the early afternoon, however, the companions had all fallen and were followed by the Banu Hashim.[27]

The Sunni historians al-Tabari (d. 923) and al-Baladhuri (d. 892) are silent in their works about the details of Abbas' death.[2][17] Veccia Vaglieri, however, argues that there must have existed traditions about his death and that those were reported by al-Mufid,[17] to the effect that Abbas and Husayn were separated when they attempted to reach the Euphrates in the ultimate episode of the battle, adding that Abbas fought valiantly until the end.[2][17] Another well-known account is reported by the Shia scholar Ibn Tawus and some others:[2] Perhaps anguished by the cries of Husayn's thirsty children,[28] Abbas set out for the Euphrates on the eve of Ashura and managed to fill his water-skin, but was blocked by the enemy near the river bank, far from Husayn's camp.[1] Fighting alone, both his arms were severed and he was then killed.[2] When Husayn's last warrior fell, the Umayyad army converged on the lone imam, who also fought until the end.[21] The account by the Sufi scholar H. Kashefi (d. 1504) in his Rawzat al-shohada differs in that it places Abbas as the sixty-eighth casualty before Mohammad ibn Ali, Ali al-Akbar, and Ali al-Asghar.[2] Zayd ibn Varqa' Hanafi and Hakim ibn al-Tofayl San'ani are named as the murderers of Abbas in al-Irshad.[2] Abu Mikhnaf in his Maqtal adds that Husayn wept bitterly when his brother fell.[29] Maqatil al-Talibiyyin by the early historian Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 967) reports that the murderer of Abbas dreamed of being flung into hell every night,[30] while reports attributed to the Shia imams Ali ibn al-Husayn (d. 713) and Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 765) highly praise Abbas for his faith and fortitude in defending Husayn.[1]

Among others, al-Mufid argues that Abbas' burial place, far from Husayn and his companions, adds to the credibility of this account, which is also corroborated by another report about Abbas' death attributed to Ali ibn al-Husayn. In support of this account, the Islamicist A. Bahramian and his co-author note that the traditional supplications for pilgrims contain references to Abbas' mission to fetch water and his arms being severed. The two authors also note that Abbas later became known as al-Saqqa' (lit. 'the water carrier') and Abu al-Qirba (qirba means 'a water-skin').[1]

After the battle, some Umayyad soldiers stripped Abbas' garments,[1][22] and his corpse was thus dishonored.[31] As with Husayn and his other companions, the head of Abbas was severed and brought to Yazid in Damascus,[2] in his case by Harmala ibn K'ahil al-Asadi.[1]

Tasu'a (9 Muharram) is devoted in Shia as the day of mourning for Abbas.[1] He is celebrated in religious passion-plays (ta'zies) as the water carrier of the Ahl al-Bayt and the standard bearer of Husayn.[2] The ta'zie of Abbas' death is among the oldest passion-plays and is frequently performed throughout the year.[1] The green standards (alams) carried in Muharram processions are often adorned on top with a metal hand (panja) representing Abbas' severed hand, with outstretched fingers that symbolize the Ahl al-Bayt.[2][1] They are engraved with the invocations such as Ya hazrat-e Abbas (lit. 'O, exalted Abbas') or Ya Abu al-Fadl.[2] Food and water are also distributed for charity in his name.[2] From West Indies to the island of Java, Sunnis and Hindus also commonly participate in most Shia Muharram rituals.[2]

Abbas is heavily featured in Shia art. Verses of poetry about him and his likeness historically appear in public religious buildings, particularly in the tile work (kashik'ari) of saqqa-khanas (public drinking-water repositories), husayniyyas and takiyyas (both are places to commemorate Husayn), and zur-khanahs (traditional Persian gymnasiums). Abbas is depicted in religious paintings often seated on a white horse and holding Husayn's banner while fighting enemies or holding a water-skin and surrounded by the womenfolk and children of the Ahl al-Bayt.[1]