Ali al-Akbar ibn Husayn

In an appointment that violated earlier agreements with Husayn's brother Hasan,[6] the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya (r. 661–680) designated his son Yazid (r. 680–683) as his successor in 676.[7] Yazid is often presented by Muslim historians as a debaucher who openly violated the Islamic norms,[8][9][10] and his nomination was indeed met with resistance at the time from sons of some prominent companions of Muhammad, including Husayn ibn Ali.[11][12] On Mu'awiya's death and Yazid's accession in 680, the latter instructed the governor of Medina to secure Husayn's pledge of allegiance by force. Husayn thus Going to Mecca at night to reject recognizing Yazid as the caliph.[4] He was accompanied by some relatives, including Ali al-Akbar.[13]

After receiving invitations from residents of Kufa, whose support were confirmed by his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil, Husayn left Mecca for Kufa on 8 or 10 Dhu al-Hijja (10 or 12 September 680), accompanied by a few relatives and supporters.[4] A tradition attributed to Husayn explains that he left to fight the tyranny of Yazid, even though it would cost his life, as reported in al-Irshad, a biographical work by the prominent Shia scholar al-Mufid (d. 1022).[14][15] Husayn also wrote in his will for his brother Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya that he had not set out to seek "corruption or oppression" but rather to "enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong."[16]

On their way to Kufa, Husayn is said to have had a dream about the eminent deaths of his companions when he briefly fell asleep on his horse. He woke up reciting verse 2:156 of the Quran, "To God we belong, and to Him is our return," offering praise to God multiple times. Ali al-Akbar rode to him and learned about the dream, but welcomed his fate. This account appears in Tarikh al-Tabari, related by Uqba ibn Sam'an, who survived the Battle of Karbala.[1] Soon afterward, Husayn's small caravan was intercepted by Yazid's army and forced to camp in the desert land of Karbala on 2 Muharram 61 (2 October 680) away from water and fortifications.[4] The promised Kufan support did not materialize as the new governor of Kufa, Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (d. 686), captured and killed Muslim ibn Aqil, the envoy of Husayn, and intimidated Kufan tribal chiefs.[4]

On 7 Muharram,[17][18] on orders of Ibn Ziyad, the Umayyad commander Umar ibn Sa'd (d. 686) cut off Husayn's access to the Euphrates river.[19][4] Husayn's half-brother, Abbas ibn Ali, and some fifty companions were nevertheless able to bring back some water to Husayn's camp in a night sortie.[4] Despite this attempt, the Islamicist L. Veccia Vaglieri (d. 1989) suggests that the camp suffered from thirst for the following three days.[20] Among other experts, D. Pinault similarly writes that the camp suffered from hunger and thirst during the siege,[21] particularly the many young children in the camp,[18] and the opinion of A. Hamdar is close.[22] Karbala has a hot desert climate.[23][24]

Ibn Sa'd was instructed by Ibn Ziyad not to let Husayn leave unless he pledged his allegiance to Yazid.[19] Husayn did not submit to Yazid,[4][20] but evidently negotiated with Ibn Ziyad through Ibn Sa'd to be allowed to retreat and avoid bloodshed. The governor did not relent, however,[20][4] and finally ordered Ibn Sa'd to fight, kill, and disfigure Husayn and his supporters unless they pledged allegiance to Yazid, in which case their fate would be decided later.[4]

Ibn Sa'd decided to attack on Tasu'a (9 Muharram) after the afternoon prayer. As the Umayyad army approached, however, Husayn dispatched Abbas and some other companions, who convinced Ibn Sa'd to delay the confrontation until the following day.[13][4] Husayn now besieged his followers in a speech to leave and not risk their lives for his sake, after which Abbas was the first to renew his support, saying that he would follow his brother in life or death.[13] Nearly all those present stayed with Husayn until the end.[4][24][25] Husayn and his companions spent that night praying and reciting the Quran,[26] as reported by the Shia jurist Ibn Tawus (d. 1266) and in most maqatil works.[27]

On the morning of Ashura (10 Muharram), Husayn organized his supporters, some seventy-two men.[20] He then spoke to the enemy lines and asked them why they considered it lawful to kill the grandson of Muhammad.[20] Probably after this speech, the Umayyad commander al-Hurr ibn Yazid al-Tamimi defected to Husayn's side.[28] The Umayyad army then showered the camp with arrows,[20] thus commencing the battle which lasted from morning till sunset and consisted of incidents of single combat, at least throughout the morning,[18] skirmishes, assaults, and retreats.[4] By the early afternoon, however, the Umayyad army had encircled the camp,[18] and the companions had all fallen.[29]

Husayn standing over the body of his dead son, Ali al-Akbar, in a reenactment of Ashura in Bahrain

Among the Alids, that is, the descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Ali a-Akbar was the first to receive permission to fight and enter the battlefield.[3][1] The accounts presented in popular literature, however, sometimes place him among the last to be killed. For instance, Ali is presented as the seventeenth casualty in Rawzat al-shohada by Husayn Kashifi (d. 1504), the Timurid-era poet and preacher.[3] Ali al-Akbar is said to have charged multiple times at the enemy lines. After one of his charges, he returned from the battlefield, injured and parched with thirst, and complained of thirst. Husayn consoled him that his thirst would soon be quenched at the hands of his great-grandfather Muhammad. Ali al-Akbar then returned to fight and was finally felled by Murra ibn Sa'd, who is said to have struck Ali from behind. He fell and was surrounded by Umayyad soldiers who "cut him to pieces." In most reports, his killer is named Murra ibn Munqidh al-Abdi,[3][1] who later survived a revenge attempt by the pro-Alid revolutionary Mukhtar al-Thaqafi (d. 687), but was severely wounded.[1] A grief-stricken Husayn wept over the body of his dead son and,[1] and lamented, "The world has ended," and, "There will be [only] dust on the world after you," according to al-Irshad.[1][30] Husayn's sister Zaynab rushed there too and Husayn finally returned to the camp with her inconsolable sister. He then asked other young men to carry the body of Ali al-Akbar back to the camp.[1]

The battle ended when the lone-standing Husayn was killed in the afternoon.[24] The severed heads of Ali al-Akbar and others were afterward taken to Ibn Ziyad in Kufa and then to Yazid in Damascus, where his head was likely buried in the Bab al-Saghir cemetery.[3] The women and children, taken captive after the battle, were marched alongside to Kufa and then Damascus.[31]