Agriculture in Turkey

Agriculture is an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers.[5] Wheat, sugar beet, milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major products;[2] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts,[3] apricots,[2] and oregano.

This article is about farming since the creation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. For earlier farming on that land, see Fertile Crescent and Economic history of the Ottoman Empire § Agriculture. For tree farming, see Forest in Turkey. For fish farming, see Fishing in Turkey. For enjoyment of farm products, see Turkish cuisine.
Cluster of pale yellow pinkish medium-sized fruit with green leaves against a clear blue sky
Four glossy brown nuts in a cross shape still partly covered on twig with leaves
Yellow-green herbs in a shallow round stone planter supported by three small stone lions
Lots of small greyish dried fruit on stalks
Turkey is the world's largest producer of apricots,[1] hazelnuts,[2] oregano[3] and raisins.[4]
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Half of Turkey's land is agricultural,[2] and farming employed 16% of the workforce in 2022,[6] and provided 10% of exports, and 7% of GDP in 2020.[7] There are just under half a million farmers as of 2022.[8][9]

Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, with much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine.[10] Turkey is the EU's fourth largest vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. Turkey would like to extend the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products.[11]

Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases. According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements.[8] 14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, and 23% was trashed by consumers before eating and 5% as leftovers.[12]

It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.[13]

History
See also: Fertile Crescent, Economic history of the Ottoman Empire § Agriculture, and History of wine § Ancient Thrace

Historically, Turkey's farmers have been fairly fragmented.[14] Atatürk, who founded the republic in the early 20th century, said that the foundation of the economy was agriculture.[15] But sometimes Atatürk's reforms were controversial. Governments initiated many projects, such as the Southeastern Anatolia Project,[16] but later much agriculture was privatized.[17]

The population increased a lot in the 20th century so there was more demand for food and agricultural land. From 1880 to 1950 growth averaged about 1% a year, in line with the increased population having new land.[18] Then growth accelerated as more land could be cultivated because there were many more machines, such as tractors - for example due to the Marshall Plan.[18] This increase in agricultural land continued until the 1990s when it started to decrease.[19] Like many other countries Turkey industrialized and urbanized, and by the end of the 20th century only 35% of employment and 13% of GDP was from agriculture.[18]

Formerly widespread in the west and centre of the country, in 1933 opium growing was strictly controlled.[20] In the 20th century growing tobacco was economically important in provinces such as Samsun, and was supported by the state, but in the early 21st century it was discouraged by governments keen to reduce smoking in Turkey.[21]

During the early 21st century farmers grew more profitable crops such as fruit and vegetables instead of wheat and corn.[22]: 4 

Regions
See also: Climate of Turkey

The most important regions for agriculture are the

Mediterranean,

Aegean,

Black Sea,

Thrace and Marmara,

Central Anatolia,

Eastern Anatolia

and Transition Regions.[17]: 8 

Soils

The main types of soil in Turkey are calisols, cambisols and leptosols, and fluvisols.[23] Degraded soil could be improved.[17]: 11  Soil surveys have been done at least since the 1950s,[24] and the ministry published a map in 1954.[25] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an NGO as is the Soil Science Society of Turkey.[26] There is a public soil database,[27] but the weblink does not work.[28] Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils is important and in 2017 it was estimated total SOC stock of soil in Turkey is 9.23 Pg up to 0.7 m depth.[29] Another estimate is slightly under 3000 tonnes/sq km.[19] A 2016 study said soil had been degraded and that there was great potential to sequester carbon.[30] Accumulation of soil organic matter depends partly on cultivation but can be hindered by aridity.[31] By the mid-20th century erosion had reduced the amount of arable land,[32] but the government is combating desertification and erosion in various ways.[33]

Crops

Agriculture is an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers.[5] Crops can be grown in all regions and there is livestock in high mountains and arid regions.[34] Wheat, sugar beet, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major crops;[2] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts,[3] apricots,[2] and oregano.

Most cultivated land is for grain.[35] In 2022 70 million tonnes of cereals and other crops were produced, 32 million tonnes of vegetables, and 27 million tonnes fruit beverages and spice crops,[36] and the country was self-sufficient in rapeseed, dry beans, potatoes and sugar beet and almost all fruits and vegetables.[37] Due to rotation a third of arable land is fallow each year.[17]: 8 

Cereals
White stork feeding in a rice field in the Göksu Delta

In 2021 the country was almost self-sufficient in cereals,[38] and the largest exports in 2022 were to Iraq, the US and Syria.[39] However in hotter years less cereal is produced.[40] About 20 million tonnes a year of wheat are grown, but less than half that each barley and corn.[41] Most wheat is winter wheat.[42] Wheat yields average 2 and a half tonnes a hectare,[43] and climate change affects both wheat productivity and where it is grown.[44] Barley is not usually irrigated, so yield depends on rainfall.[42] Drought can be a problem for both winter wheat and winter barley.[45] Nearly 85% of corn is used to make animal feed.[42] Rice is planted April/May and harvested Sept/Oct.[42]

Oilseeds
Sunflowers in Adana Province

Almost half of the country's sunflower seeds are grown in Thrace. Soybeans are used as a rotation crop and to feed fish and chickens. Sunflower oil is more consumed than olive oil, as it is cheaper.[46]

Vegetables and fruit

Citrus fruits are grown mainly in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions.[47] Many tomatoes are exported.[48] Most exports are to the EU.[49] Avocado cultivation in Turkey has shown significant improvement in recent years.[50] In addition, banana cultivation in the Mediterranean region of Turkey has an important potential.[51] Greenhouses have a competitive advantage over EU ones due to lower costs.[52] In 2022 Turkey had a third of the world's greenhouses heated by geothermal energy.[53] Geothermal can also be used to dry fruit.[54] Tropical fruit such as mangoes can be grown in greenhouses.[55] In 2023 hydroponics is starting to be used in these geothermal greenhouses.[56]

Grapes

About 4 million tonnes of grapes are grown annually,[57] ranking sixth in the world.[58] The country has the fifth largest area of vineyard,[59] and about 3% of the harvest is used for Turkish wine.[59] Raisins are exported to the EU and UK.[60]

Olives
Egyptian Campion under olive trees in Sarıçam

There are almost 200 million olive trees,[61] and Turkey produces about 200 thousand tonnes of olive oil a year,[62] that is an average of 1 kg per tree per year. Edremit (Ayvalık) is the main variety in northern Turkey and Memecik in the south. Gemlik is a black table olive and many other varieties are grown.[63]

Tea
This section is an excerpt from Tea in Turkey § Domestic production.[edit]
Tea harvest

Since the mid-20th century most of the tea produced in Turkey has been Rize tea, a terroir from Rize Province on the Eastern Black Sea coast.[64] Rize has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil.[64]

In 2019 Turkey produced 1.45 million tonnes of tea (4% of the world's tea), and was one of the largest tea markets in the world,[65] with 1.26 million tonnes being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported.[64] Turks drink the most tea per person at 3.5kg per capita, or almost four glasses a day.[66] Turkey has high import tariffs on tea, roughly 145%, which helps maintain the domestic market for locally produced teas.[67]

Herbs medicines and spices
opium poppies

There are about a thousand species, of which almost half are exported, with oregano, bay leaves, sage, aniseed and cumin being the top export earners. But much aniseed is used in the country to flavour rakı.[68] Turkey produces most of the world's oregano.[69] Garlic is grown.[70] Opium is grown for medicines.[20]

Nuts
Pistachios in Midyat District

About 70% of the world's hazelnuts are produced in Turkey. Ferrero, the Italian producer of Nutella spread, buys the most.[71] The ministry is encouraging planting more almond and commercial walnut trees, as national supply does not meet domestic demand.[71] Around 200 thousand tonnes of pistachios are produced annually but yields vary a lot between on and off years. NGO TEMA has been training pistachio farmers.[71]

Livestock

There are about 150 thousand sq km of pasture.[19] Almost 75% of red meat was from cows and under 20% from sheep in 2021.[72] Sheep meat is slightly more expensive than beef. A lot of sheep and goat meat is exported to Iraq. Over 20 million tonnes of milk is produced each year.[73] Et ve Süt Kurumu is the meat and milk board which regulates the meat market.

The main forage crops are alfalfa, silage corn, oats, vetch, and sainfoin.[74] Animal feed manufacture depends on imports and more cattle feed is produced than chicken feed.[42] Livestock are affected by foot and mouth disease.[75] Since at least 1990 enteric fermentation (cows and sheep belching methane) has been the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, followed by agricultural soils.[76]: 38 

Cattle
See also: Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey § Agriculture and fishing

In 2022 there were 17 million cattle[77] of which about 70% were dairy.[73] Native cattle breeds such as Anatolian Black cattle are low yielding but hardy.[78] About 80% of cattle farm expenditure is on feed. In 2023 inflation was a problem for cattle farmers as feed prices were increasing faster than milk and beef prices. Most imports are feeder cattle for beef.[73] Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle.[lower-alpha 1] Traditionally transhumance was practiced. The Agriculture Ministry is trying to get more biogas produced from cattle waste.[80]

Sheep, goats and buffalo
Goatherd and his Kangal dog near Kozan

Turkey is a major sheep producer. In 2022 there were 45 million sheep,[77] including 30 million ewes (mostly of the fat-tailed type) and the average flock size was 85. A quarter of meat is from sheep, with 390 thousand tonnes a year and an average 4.2 kilograms (9.3 lb) is consumed per person per year. The highest sheep meat consumption is during Eid Al Adha. Turkish sheep meat is exported to Iraq, Syria and Gulf countries. Cheese is made from sheep milk.[81] Sheep and goats are mostly fed on pasture.[73] In 2022 there were 12 million goats and 170 thousand buffalo.[77]

Poultry

Over a million tonnes of meat and over 2 million tonnes of eggs are produced a year.[82]

Beekeeping

Over a hundred thousand tonnes of honey are produced annually.[83]

Fish farms
This section is an excerpt from Fishing in Turkey § Aquaculture.[edit]
Aquaculture, which started in the 1970s, has been supported by the government since 2003. Sea bass and sea bream are farmed, and mostly trout in inland waters.[84] Aquaculture overtook fishing in 2020, with Muğla, İzmir and Elazığ being the top provinces. In 2021 US$1.2 billion worth of farmed fish were exported.[85]

Employment
Black Sea tea farming in 1990
Farmer in Hacımirza

There are just under half a million farmers as of 2022,[8][9] 16% of the workforce.[6] As of 2022, agricultural statistics need improvement according to the EU.[86] In 2022 there were over 2 million people on the Agriculture Ministry's Farmer Registration System,[87] but only half a million were farmers[88] and known to the Social Security Institution.[89] Many farms are small[90] and family farms are common, with many women working informally.[91] It has been claimed that with the influx of Syrian refugees seasonal agricultural work became more precarious, especially for women and children.[92][93] Kurdish seasonal workers are also poor.[94] The International Labour Organization is helping to stop child labour.[95] The UN Food and Agriculture Organization has various projects, prioritising “Food and Nutrition Security and Food Safety”, “Sustainable use of natural resources and raising awareness on climate change impacts” and “Institutional Capacity of Public and Private Sectors".[96]

In 2022 the average daily wage of a seasonal worker was 238 lira and the average monthly wage of a permanent worker was 6547 lira.[97]

Environment

Half of Turkey's land is agricultural.[2] Deliberate burning field residue can cause wildfires in Turkey.[98] Agriculture on steep land can increase the risk of flooding.[33]: 32 

Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases. According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements.[8] 14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, compared to 23% trashed by consumers before eating and 5% leftovers.[12] Stubble burning is illegal in Turkey, but farmers continue the practice illicitly.[99] In 2020 over 900 thousand tonnes of ammonia was emitted.[100]

Research

It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.[13] Seeds and bulbs are stored long term.[101] The World Bank has a project to improve sustainable agriculture in some regions,[102] however in the first 2 decades of the 21st century farming is thought not to have been sustainable.[103] The EU said in 2022 that food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy should be improved.[104]

There are about 2 million tractors and it has been suggested that electric tractors should be subsidized.[105] However, there is only one electric tractor manufacturer and they are not yet mass-produced.[106] There is a General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies (TAGEM) centre for research on soil borne pathogens.[107]

As of 2022 some gene editing of animal feed corn and feed soya is allowed but not for human food.[108]

Trade and economics

Over 50 billion dollars revenue a year is from agriculture,[109] and farming provided 10% of exports and 7% of GDP in 2020.[7] Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, with much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine.[10] Turkey is the EU's fourth largest non-EU vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. In 2023 Finance Minister Mehmet Şimşek said he would like to restart negotiations on the “low-hanging fruit" of extending the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products which had came to a halt in 2018;[110] as of 2023 the agreement only applies to processed agricultural products.[111] In 2021, Turkey received 65 percent of all imported wheat from Russia and more than 13 percent from Ukraine.[10] Europe and the Middle East are large export markets and some food is processed before export.[5] In 2020 the country receiving the most exports was Iraq,[112] and that sending the most food to Turkey was Russia.[113] Turkey is the world's largest exporter of wheat flour, and some other countries's flour producers say it is dumping with unfair subsidies.[114] The EU intends to support rural development with €430 million during 2021–2027.[115] Total Factor Productivity is estimated to have decreased by 2% annually on average from 2005 to 2016.[116] According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development “investment is needed to help farmers update production techniques, boost productivity and cope with climate change” in the uplands (most rural land is uplands).[5]

Gübretaş and Hektaş are large fertiliser companies. State enterprises market some products.[117] Over a billion dollars of damage to agriculture infrastructure and storage was done by the 2023 earthquake.[118]

The Agricultural Insurance Pool(Turkish) is linked to the government. As of April 2023 there are no import taxes on wheat, barley, maize, rye, oats, legumes and sorghum.[119] But import tariffs average over 40% so it would be hard to add agriculture to the EU customs union.[120]

Some academics say that high food price inflation is due to macroeconomic instability.[121] Food price rises such as onion and potato prices can be politically sensitive.[121] The Turkish Industry and Business Association say that Turkey needs a good climate change adaptation strategy to cope with effects such as drought.[121]

Input costs could be reduced by replacing some diesel use with solar power, but as of 2022 agrivoltaics is only allowed on agriculturally marginal land. and farmers say there is too much red tape.[22]

Problems include small farm sizes, rising import costs and natural resource depletion such as soil.[22]: 4 

Subsidies
Turkish Grain Board silos in Izmir

The 2023 agricultural support budget was 55.5 billion lira.[122] In 2019-21 about 20% of gross farm income was government support, mostly market price support, particularly for potatoes, wheat, sunflower seed and beef.[117] 2021 support for 21 strategic crops in some places was nearly 25b lira (1.8b dollars).[42] Diesel and fertilizer payments were made, which may make the goal of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2053 more difficult.[117]

Farmers are not allowed to export wheat.[123] Despite subsidies farmer's fuel and fertilizer costs increased a lot in 21/22 due to international price rises and the fall in the lira.[42] The state's Grain Board (TMO)(Turkish) sometimes pays more for foreign than Turkish wheat, and farmers complain that foreign wheat is sold at a discount:[123] this is done so bread is cheaper, as Turks eat so much bread.[42] A TMO objective is to stabilize grain prices.[42] Cotton growing[124] and oilseeds[46] are subsidized. There is some support for organic farming.[125]

Irrigation
The Atatürk Dam is the largest of the 22 dams in the Southeastern Anatolia Project, which includes the irrigation of 1.82 million hectares of land.
See also: Climate change in Turkey § Agriculture

Desertification has been modelled and the risk has been mapped,[33] showing that high-risk regions are Konya/Karapınar, Iğdır/Aralık, Şanlıurfa/Ceylanpınar and Salt Lake basins.[126]

Solar power is occasionally used to pump water in order to combat drought,[127] which can reduce planting of crops such as corn and potatoes.[128] Water pricing is being considered.[117]

Farmers mostly use surface irrigation, which may quickly deplete groundwater and can runoff the farm. As of 2023 73% of Turkey's water supply is used for irrigation, and it has been estimated that this is double what it would be if all farmers used drip irrigation.[129] Shrinking lakes have been blamed both on reduced precipitation due to climate change and incorrect crops using more water, such as corn and sugar beet.[130]

Notes
  1. Total 72 Mt: 27 Mt enteric fermentation + 61% of 9 Mt manure management = 32 Mt + unknown share of agricultural soils.[79]: 240, 257 

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https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Kategori/GetKategori?p=Tarim-111 Turkstat agriculture stats

"Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry". journals.tubitak.gov.tr. TÜBİTAK. Retrieved 2023-02-27.

Further reading

https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/the-soils-of-turkey/15096168 Soils of Turkey

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