Southwestern Mandarin

Modern Southwestern Mandarin was formed by the waves of immigrants brought to the regions during the Ming[2][3] and Qing Dynasties.[4] Because of the comparatively recent move, such dialects show more similarity to modern Standard Mandarin than to other varieties of Chinese like Cantonese or Hokkien. For example, like most Southern Chinese dialects, Southwestern Mandarin does not possess the retroflex consonants (zh, ch, sh, r) of Standard Mandarin, but most varieties of it also fail to retain the checked tone that all southern dialects have. The Chengdu-Chongqing and Hubei dialects are believed to reflect aspects of the Mandarin lingua franca that was spoken during the Ming.[5] However, some scholars believe its origins may be more similar to Lower Yangtze Mandarin.[6] Though part of the Mandarin group, Southwestern Mandarin has many striking and pronounced differences with Standard Mandarin such that until 1955, it was generally categorized alongside Cantonese and Wu Chinese as a branch of Chinese varieties.[7]

Southwestern Mandarin is commonly spoken in Kokang district in Northern Myanmar, where the population is largely Kokang. Southwestern Mandarin is also one of two official languages of the Wa State, an unrecognized autonomous state within Myanmar, alongside the Wa language. Because Wa has no written form, Chinese is the official working language of the Wa State government.[8][9] Some of its speakers, known as the Chin Haw, live in Thailand.[10] It is also spoken in parts of Northern Vietnam.[11] Ethnic minorities in Vietnam's Lào Cai Province used to speak Southwestern Mandarin to each other when their languages were not mutually intelligible.[12] Southwestern Mandarin is also used between different ethnic minorities in Yunnan,[13][14] Guizhou[3]^: 31 and Guangxi.[3][15][16]

Chengyu and Guanchi subgroups in Sichuan and Chongqing

Southwestern Mandarin was classified into twelve dialect groups in the Language Atlas of China:[18]

• Cheng–Yu 成渝: Chengdu and Chongqing
• Dianxi 滇西 (western Yunnan): Yao–Li 姚里 and Bao–Lu 保潞 clusters
• Qianbei 黔北 (northern Guizhou)
• Kun–Gui 昆貴: Kunming and Guiyang
• Guan–Chi 灌赤 (central Sichuan from Guan County to the Chishui River and part of northern Yunnan): Minjiang 岷江, Ren–Fu 仁富, Ya–Mian 雅棉, and Li–Chuan 丽川 clusters
• Ebei 鄂北 (northern Hubei)
• Wu–Tian 武天: Wuhan and Tianmen (Hubei)
• Cen–Jiang 岑江 (eastern Guizhou)
• Qiannan 黔南 (southern Guizhou)
• Xiangnan 湘南 (southern Hunan): Yongzhou and Chenzhou
• Gui–Liu 桂柳 (northern Guangxi): Guilin and Liuzhou
• Chang–He 常鹤: Changde and Zhangjiajie (northwestern Hunan) and Hefeng County (southwestern Hubei)

• Sichuanese dialects