Second sound

Second sound is observed in liquid helium at temperatures below the lambda point, 2.1768 K, where ⁴He becomes a superfluid known as helium II. Helium II has the highest thermal conductivity of any known material (several hundred times higher than copper).[9] Second sound can be observed either as pulses or in a resonant cavity.[10]

The speed of second sound is close to zero near the lambda point, increasing to approximately 20 m/s around 1.8 K,[11] about ten times slower than normal sound waves.[12] At temperatures below 1 K, the speed of second sound in helium II increases as the temperature decreases.[13]

Second sound is also observed in superfluid helium-3 below its lambda point 2.5 mK.[14]

As per the two-fluid, the speed of second sound is given by

${\displaystyle c_{2}=\left({\frac {TS^{2}}{C}}\,{\frac {\rho _{s}}{\rho _{n}}}\right)^{1/2}}$

where ${\displaystyle T}$ is the temperature, ${\displaystyle S}$ is the entropy, ${\displaystyle C}$ is the specific heat, ${\displaystyle \rho _{s}}$ is the superfluid density and ${\displaystyle \rho _{n}}$ is the normal fluid density. As ${\displaystyle T\rightarrow 0}$, ${\displaystyle c_{2}=c/{\sqrt {3}}}$, where ${\displaystyle c=(\partial p/\partial \rho )_{S}\approx (\partial p/\partial \rho )_{T}}$ is the ordinary (or first) sound speed.

Second sound has been observed in solid ⁴He and ³He,[15][16] and in some dielectric solids such as Bi in the temperature range of 1.2 to 4.0 K with a velocity of 780 ± 50 m/s,[17] or NaF around 10 to 20 K.[18]

In 2019 it was reported that ordinary graphite exhibits "second sound" at 120 K. This feature was both predicted theoretically and observed experimentally, and was by far the highest temperature at which second sound has been observed.[19] However, this second sound is observed only at the microscale, because the wave dies out exponentially with characteristic length 1-10 microns. Therefore, presumably graphite in the right temperature regime has extraordinarily high thermal conductivity but only for the purpose of transferring heat pulses distances of order 10 microns, and for pulses of duration on the order of 10 nanoseconds. For more "normal" heat-transfer, graphite's observed thermal conductivity is less than that of, e.g, copper. The theoretical models, however, predict longer absorption lengths would be seen in isotopically-pure graphite, and perhaps over a wider temperature range, e.g. even at room temperature. (As of March 2019, that experiment has not yet been tried.)

In 2021 this effect was observed in a BKT superfluid[20] as well as in a germanium semiconductor[21][22]

Measuring the speed of second sound in ³He-⁴He mixtures can be used as a thermometer in the range 0.01-0.7 K.[23]

Oscillating superleak transducers (OST)[24] use second sound to locate defects in superconducting accelerator cavities.[25][26]

• Third sound

• Sinyan Shen, Surface Second Sound in Superfluid Helium. PhD Dissertation (1973). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PhDT.......142S
• V. Peshkov, "'Second Sound' in Helium II," J. Phys. (Moscow) 8, 381 (1944)
• U. Piram, "Numerical investigation of second sound in liquid helium," Dipl.-Ing. Dissertation (1991). Retrieved on April 15, 2007.