Satala Aphrodite

The Satala Aphrodite is a larger-than-life–sized head of an ancient Hellenistic statue discovered in Satala (classical Armenia Minor,[3] present-day Sadak, Gümüşhane Province, Turkey). It was acquired by the British Museum in 1873, a year after its discovery, and is on display in the museum's Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Whether it represents the Greek goddess Aphrodite or her Armenian equivalent Anahit is the subject of debate. It is usually dated around the 2nd–1st centuries BC. The head is widely depicted in Armenian culture as an iconic symbol of the country's pre-Christian history.

Satala Aphrodite
The head and hand of the Satala Aphrodite on display at the British Museum
MaterialBronze
Sizehead: 35.5 cm × 31 cm × 23.6 cm (14.0 in × 12.2 in × 9.3 in)[1]
Created4th–1st centuries BC, Asia Minor
Discovered1872
Satala (present-day Sadak, Kelkit District, Gümüşhane Province, Turkey)
Present locationBritish Museum, Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities[2]

Discovery and acquisition by the British Museum
Roman Asia Minor in the early 1st century AD, with Armenia Minor as a Roman client state. Its two major centres, Satala and Nicopolis are shown.

The head was found in 1872 by an old man named Youssouf who was digging in his field with an pickaxe, at a depth of around 2 feet (0.61 m), near the village of Sadak,[4] in what was once the ancient Roman fortress of Satala, on the Kelkit River, north of Erzincan (then in the Ottoman Empire, now Turkey).[5] The man uncovered several bronze statue fragments including the head and a hand.[2] The head was acquired in Constantinople by Savas Kougioumtsoglou, a Greek antiquities dealer, who passed it to another dealer, Photiades Bey, who was then Ottoman ambassador to Italy.[6][2] Photiades took it to Rome, where it was sold to the art dealer Alessandro Castellani, an Italian goldsmith and collector,[7] who in turn sold it to the British Museum in 1873, where it was registered on August 20.[2]

Gunning noted that "extraordinary efforts" were made to acquire it.[8] She argues that it was sold in violation of both Ottoman and Italian laws.[9] Bartın University archeologist Şahin Yıldırım said the head was "smuggled" from Turkey.[10] Castellani bribed Italian customs officials to export his collection.[9] The acquisition was negotiated by Charles Thomas Newton, keeper of the museum's Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities.[7] Newton appealed directly to British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, who agreed to provide £27,000 (£2 million in 2021) for Castellani's collection.[11]

The hand was donated by Castellani three years later and registered at the British Museum in December 1875.[12] The rest of the statue was never found,[2][13] despite excavations by Alfred Biliotti and David George Hogarth.[14]

Description

The head was first described in detail by the German archaeologist Richard Engelmann in 1878.[15][16][17]

The head weighs 10 kilograms (22 lb)[1] and is between 35.5 cm (14.0 in)[1] and 38.1 cm (15.0 in)[2] high. The bronze is 2–3 mm (0.079–0.118 in) thick.[18][19] The head and the hand belonged to a statue, from which they were removed. The back of the head and neck are severely damaged, though the face has largely been preserved.[1][14] The top of the head was damaged during excavation.[2] The face shows signs of oxidisation, while the front of the neck had two faults in casting, which have been repaired by the insertion of strips of bronze.[14][1] The eyes originally had either inlaid gemstones or glass.[2][14]

The subject is in a "pensive mood."[20] William Lethaby described the face as wide with a "radiant yet disdainful expression."[21] The hair is waved with curls on the forehead and ringlets on the sides, while the mouth is slightly open.[14]

Herbert Maryon described its creation as a good example of a technique which began in the 4th century BC:[22]

They modelled a head, perhaps in clay, and formed the outer mould in the usual manner. They then lined the mould with thin slabs of wax, about 3⁄16 inch (4.8 mm) thick, pressing the wax fairly closely into all the forms. To ensure the free flow of the bronze they sometimes added small bridges of wax, say from the hair to the eyebrows and across the lips inside the head, before the core was inserted.

Maryon noted that besides the bridges, the inside of the head contains a number of fingermarks, which proves that the core "could not have been made first."[22] The hair was cut into curls with a chisel.[22]

The left hand, which was found together with the head, holds a fragment of drapery,[1] which is 26.7 cm (10.5 in)[14] or 29.21 cm (11.50 in)[12] long. Lâtife Summerer suggested that the original statue was more than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in height.[23]

Origin
A drawing of the head in the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1875), two years after its acquisition by the British Museum.[24]

The date of the statue is unknown and debated among scholars. It was initially dated to the 4th century BC,[14][21] but William Lethaby questioned it and suggested that it is a 2nd century BC work.[21] Modern scholars, such as James R. Russell, Mark Jones, Paul Craddock, and Nicolas Barker tend to place its creation in the 2nd or 1st century BC,[5][25] but Vrej Nersessian continued to refer to the mid-4th century BC.[1] Babken Arakelian argued in favor of 2nd century BC,[26] while Reynold Higgins suggested that "it may be a cast from a mould made in c. 150 B.C."[27] Terence Mitford suggested it is from the "late Hellenistic or early Roman period".[27] Lucilla Burn argues for a late Hellenistic date.[13] Brunilde Sismondo Ridgway writes that it is dated no earlier than the Augustan period.[28] The British Museum dates it to the 1st century BC.[2]

Most scholars agree that it was probably created in Asia Minor.[26][1][29][30] James R. Russell suggested western Asia Minor.[5] Lethaby suggested that it is a work in an Alexandrian style.[21]

Matthew P. Canepa described it as of "Hellenistic workmanship."[31] Dyfri Williams and Lucilla Burn believe it came from a Greek or Hellenistic cult statue.[13][30] Reynold Higgins suggested that "it may be a Greek or Hellenistic original, or a Roman copy."[27] Vrej Nersessian noted that it is "now generally recognized" that its style reflects that of Scopas rather than that of Praxiteles (the author of Aphrodite of Knidos), because of the "low broad forehead, the intensely gazing deep-set eyes, and the large heavy nose, are all characteristic of the strongly marked individuality of that sculptor's heads."[1]

Subject
The head in Ghevont Alishan's 1890 book Ayrarat, in which he first identified the statue with Anahit.[32]
1992 and 2007 Armenian postages stamp depicting the head

As early as 1873 Charles Thomas Newton identified the head with Venus.[33] It is now usually interpreted as representing Aphrodite.[1][lower-alpha 1] However, this has not been universally accepted with some suggesting it has commonalities with male deities, such as Apollo or Dionysos.[1]

H. B. Walters suggested that it may have been a copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos (Cnidian Aphrodite) based on the left hand holding drapery at her side, but noted that "it is by no means certain that the head represents Aphrodite."[14] Zhores Khachatryan had no doubt that it is a replica of Aphrodite of Knidos.[34] Babken Arakelyan found Artemis to be a more probable subject of the statue than Aphrodite.[35]

Association with Anahit(a) and Armenia

Ghevont Alishan, in his 1890 book Ayrarat, first insisted that the head represents Anahit, the Armenian equivalent of Aphrodite.[16][32] Some scholars have adopted this view, based on the proximity of a major temple of Anahit in Erez (Eriza) in present-day Erzincan,[38] around 30 km (19 mi) south of Satala. Both Satala and Erez were located in the Acilisene (Եկեղեաց, Ekełeats‘) province of classical Armenia Minor.[1][30]

The British Museum describes the work as a "bronze head from a cult statue of Anahita in the guise of Aphrodite or Artemis."[2] The authors of a 2002 British Museum publication described it as being "in Hellenistic style" but "identified as a representation of the Iranian goddess Anahita."[39] Jones, Craddock, and Barker described it as an "eastern representation" of Aphrodite.[25] The Armenian scholar Mardiros Ananikian wrote in The Mythology of All Races (1925) that it is a "Greek work (probably Aphrodite)" that was "worshiped by the Armenians."[40]

Satala was also, for centuries, the site of a Roman legionary headquarters,[29] while the temple of Anahit at Erez, which "enjoyed great fame", was established, according to tradition, by Tigranes the Great in the first century BC and was the "wealthiest and most venerable in Armenia" per Cicero.[41] Anahit's cult in Acilisene was so great that it was known as Anaetica (the land of Anahit/Anaïtis).[41] Her cult at Eriza was closely linked with the Armenian monarchy, with kings travelling annually to the goddess's festival.[41] After Armenia's conversion to Christianity in the early 4th century, Anahit's images were destroyed.[1][41] Lethaby suggested that the head and hand "bear manifest evidence of violent destruction" of the "Greek statues of bronze brought to Armenia".[21]

Timothy Bruce Mitford argues that the statue was looted from the sanctuary of Anaitis at Eriza, but C. S. Lightfoot rejects this view as baseless.[42] Lâtife Summerer argues that its discovery in northeastern Anatolia "supports its interpretation as Anaïtis."[23] Russell noted that while it is "believed to be from a statue of Anahit", it is "more probably from a Roman temple".[43] Zhores Khachatryan stated that "the Armenian origin of the statue still has to be proven". He believes that "it is more possible that it may be the statue of a Roman pagan goddess" as it was found near the site of a Roman camp inhabited during the time period of its assumed creation.[44] Robert H. Hewsen posited that it is "an obviously Hellenistic work" that is "surely not to be identified with any Armenian deity."[45] Terence Mitford suggests that an identification as Anaitis (Anahita) is "wholly implausible".[27]

Reception in the West
A hyalograph drawn by T.E. Macklin (1892).[46]

The head has been widely admired in the West since its discovery. In a 1873 letter to Prime Minister Gladstone, Charles Thomas Newton wrote that the head is "the finest example of Greek work in metal" he had seen. He added that it is "the work which in beauty of conception and mastery of execution has most claim to rank next to the marbles of the Parthenon."[33] In a Times article, Newton wrote that the first impression produced by the head is that of "majestic godlike beauty."[47][48] Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine wrote in 1888:[49]

No one should visit the [British] Museum without going to see the head of Aphrodite [...] a unique example of a Greek bronze sculptured in a large commanding style [...] executed with all the feeling and skill which belongs to Greek art.

Philip Gilbert Hamerton wrote in 1892 that the head depicts a "simple and beautiful antique way of dressing the hair which was so suitable for plastic representation."[46] In 1894 art historian Arthur Frothingham described the bronze head as "one of the glories of the British Museum".[50]

Sara Anderson Immerwahr called the bronze head "famous" and "lovely" that depicts "restless beauty".[51] She argued that its "more than life-sized proportions but the ideal beauty and absence of individualized features suggest a goddess, yet the greater contrast of light and shade in the highly modelled strands of hair and the dramatic turn of the head toward the left bespeak the more baroque transformation of the Classical in the second century [BC], such as we find in the heads of goddesses on the Great Altar at Pergamon."[51] David Marshall Lang described it as "singularly fine",[52] while James R. Russell called it as a "piece of very fine workmanship."[5] Lucilla Burn, former Curator in Greek & Roman Department at the British Museum, wrote that the "exceptional quality of the surviving elements" suggest that the statue "must have formed a highly impressive figure."[13]

The head appears on the cover of The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World (2002).[53]

Reception in Armenia
A replica at the History Museum of Armenia in Yerevan
On a 5,000 Armenian dram banknote, in circulation from 1995 to 2005.[54]
A 1997 commemorative coin depicting the head as goddess Anahit.[55]

The head is widely known in Armenia as representing Anahit.[56] It has become a symbol of Armenian culture, and a "rare surviving example of ancient Armenian cultural heritage."[57] Robert H. Hewsen argued that while it is "certainly a work of external origin", it is "often touted as an example of Hellenistic art in Armenia."[29] Dickran Kouymjian described it as "magnificent" and an "important object" that is "associated with Armenia because it was found at Satala near Erzinjan" and suggested that it was "probably imported into Armenia by the royal court."[58] Sirarpie Der Nersessian wrote that the head is a Greek work and the "only surviving example of the statues, which according to tradition, were brought from the Hellenistic cities by Tigran the Great."[59] George Bournoutian wrote that the head is the only surviving example of the numerous statues brought to Armenia by Greek priests and cults.[60] Babken Arakelyan considered it the most prominent of all Hellenistic statues found in historical Armenia.[35]

Mashinka Firunts Hakopian argued that the "misclassification of [its] find-spot" as Turkey and the erasure of the "link between Anahit and her Armenian origins is a kind of structural re-enactment of the logics of cultural genocide" invoked by Turkey and Azerbaijan.[56]

A "faithful"[58] replica of the head has been on display at the History Museum of Armenia in Yerevan since 1968.[61] It also appeared on the 5,000 Armenian dram banknotes, which were in circulation from 1995 to 2005. The obverse side of the banknote depicted the Temple of Garni.[54] The first gold commemorative coin issued by the Central Bank of Armenia, in 1997, depicted the head.[55]

The head is depicted on the logo of the Artists' Union of Armenia,[62] and on two postage stamp issued by Armenia in 1992 and 2007 (the latter jointly with Greece).[63][64]

A 2000 painting, Still Life with Vensus's Mask (alternatively titled Still Life with Anahit's Mask) by Lavinia Bazhbeuk-Melikyan is inspired by the head. It currently hangs at the President's Residence in Yerevan.[65][66]

Armenian-American Peter Balakian authored a poem titled "Head of Anahit/British Museum", which was published in Poetry magazine in 2016.[67]

Efforts to move to Armenia

Khachatur Yesayan, a Soviet Armenian artist, proposed in 1966 to start talks with the British Museum to move the head to Armenia.[68]

In February 2012 Armen Ashotyan, then Minister of Education and Science of Armenia from the ruling Republican Party (RPA), called for moving the fragments of the statue to Armenia.[69] Ashotyan claimed that this was a personal and not a political initiative.[44] By the end of February some 20,000 signatures were collected by the RPA-affiliated Armenia Youth Fund demanding that the fragments be moved to Armenia.[70][71] One proponent of the campaign argued that the "sentimental value of the goddess Anahit's statue is worth far more to the Armenians than to the tourists and visitors of the British Museum".[72] On March 7, 2012 some one hundred people, joined by Ashotyan,[73] demonstrated in front of the British embassy in Yerevan, chanting "Anahit, come home!" A letter was handed over to the embassy thanking the United Kingdom for preserving the fragments, but claimed that "historical justice requires" that they "be repatriated and find refuge in the country of their origin".[44]

In response, UK ambassador Kathy Leach was quoted by the Armenian media as saying that the head will be temporarily exhibited in Armenia.[74][75][76][77] Ashotyan responded that while he was thankful, "our ultimate goal is permanent return."[73]

Zhores Khachatryan criticized the campaign as "pointless" and "populism that failed from the start."[44] Vahan Gasparyan, head of the Ministry of Culture's Agency for the Preservation of Historical-Cultural Heritage, noted that the fragments were "not illegally exported from [Armenia], nor was it a war trophy, so that the ministry could try to return it with references to international treaties. It's possible only as an act of good will."[44] Mark Grigorian, an Armenian-born BBC Russian journalist, noted that "it is quite obvious that the British Museum won't give anything to Armenia" and suggested that "the myths about Anahit are used in modern Armenia as a way to earn political points", which he described as populism.[78]

Exhibitions

It has been displayed at the 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal, Canada,[51] at the British Library in 2001, in Manarat Al Saadiyat, Abu Dhabi in 2012, and Palazzo Strozzi, Florence in 2015.[2]

References
Notes
  1. Terence Mitford: "normally assigned to Aphrodite"[27] James R. Russell: "of the Greek Aphrodite type"[5]
Citations
  1. Nersessian, Vrej (2001). "Bronze Head of Aphrodite/Anahit". Treasures from the Ark: 1700 Years of Armenian Christian Art. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 114–115. ISBN 9780892366392.
  2. "The Satala Aphrodite". British Museum. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020.
  3. Bennett, Julian (2007). "Two New Centurions of the "Legio IIII Scythica"". Latomus. Société d'Études Latines de Bruxelles. 66 (2): 405. JSTOR 41545245. ...the bronze head of Aphrodite from Satala in classical Armenia Minor, acquired by the British Museum in 1873...
  4. Gunning 2022, p. 225.
  5. Russell, James R. (1987). Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Harvard University Press. p. 249. ISBN 0-674-96850-6.
  6. Gunning 2022, p. 224.
  7. Gunning 2022, p. 220.
  8. Gunning 2022, p. 219.
  9. Gunning 2022, p. 228.
  10. "Excavations in ancient Salata unearth Roman legionary base". Hürriyet Daily News. (via Anadolu Agency). August 23, 2018. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022.
  11. Gunning 2022, pp. 222–223.
  12. "The Satala Aphrodite [hand]". britishmuseum.org. British Museum. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023.
  13. Burn, Lucilla (2004). Hellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus. Getty Publications. pp. 87–88. ISBN 9780892367764.
  14. Walters, Henry Beauchamp (1899). Catalogue of the bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. London. pp. 33-34. 266. Head from Colossal Statue, perhaps Aphrodite{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. Engelmann, Richard (1878). "Ein Bronzekopf des British Museum". Archäologische Zeitung (in German). Berlin: German Archaeological Institute: 150-158.
  16. Margaryan 2003, p. 236.
  17. Translated into Armenian by the Mekhitarists of Venice: Engelmann (1883). "Պղնձէ գլուխ մը ի Հայաստան գտնուած [A copper head found in Armenia]". Bazmavēp (in Armenian). San Lazzaro degli Armeni (2): 130–141. Archived from the original on 2022-08-26.
  18. Haynes, Denys (1992). The Technique of Greek Bronze Statuary. Meinz/Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. p. 68.
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  20. Allan, Tony; Maitland, Sara (2012). "Aphrodite and Adonis: A Myth of Love and Death". Ancient Greece and Rome: Myths and Beliefs. New York: Rosen Publishing Group. p. 127. ISBN 9781448860470.
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  22. Maryon, Herbert (1956). "Fine Metal-Work". In Singer, Charles; Holmyard, E. J.; Hall, A. R.; Williams, Trevor I. (eds.). A History of Technology: Volume 2: The Mediterranean Civlizations and the Middle Ages-- C.700 B.C. to A.D. 1500. New York and London: Oxford University Press. p. 478.
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  24. "Archæology". Encyclopædia Britannica Vol. II (9th ed.). 1875. pp. 362. Colossal bronze head. Brit. Mus. Said to have been found at Satala in Armenia. (high resolution scan)
  25. Jones, Mark; Craddock, Paul; Barker, Nicolas, eds. (1990). Fake?: The Art of Deception. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780520070875.
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  27. Mitford, T. B. (1974). "Biliotti's Excavations at Satala". Anatolian Studies. British Institute at Ankara. 24: 236. doi:10.2307/3642610. JSTOR 3642610. S2CID 131227042.
  28. Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo (2001). Hellenistic Sculpture, Volume 1. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 324. ISBN 9780299118242.
  29. Hewsen 2001, p. 20.
  30. Williams, Dyfri (2009). Masterpieces of Classical Art. University of Texas Press. p. 204. ISBN 9780292721470.
  31. Canepa, Matthew P. (2020). The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE. University of California Press. p. 240. ISBN 9780520379206.
  32. Alishan, Ghevont (1890). Այրարատ [Ayrarat] (in Armenian). San Lazzaro degli Armeni. p. 400.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  33. Gunning 2022, p. 222.
  34. Khachatryan, Zhores (1985). "Անահիտ դիցուհու պաշտամունքն ու պատկերագրությունը Հայաստանում և նրա աղերսները հելլենիստական աշխարհի հետ [The Cult and Iconography of Goddess Anahit in Armenia and Its Relations with the Hellenistic World]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian) (1): 128. Archived from the original on 2023-09-14. Retrieved 2023-09-14.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  35. Arakelyan, Babken (1969). "Քանդակագործությունը հին Հայաստանում (VI դ. մ. թ. ա.-III դ. մ. թ.) [Sculpture in Ancient Armenia (4th century BCE–3rd century CE]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian) (1): 62. Archived from the original on 2022-06-10. Retrieved 2023-09-14.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  36. Melik-Pashayan 1963, p. 103.
  37. Margaryan 2003, p. 235.
  38. [36][29][1][37]
  39. Curtis, John; Kruszyński, Mirosław (2002). "Ancient Caucasian and Related Material in the British Museum". Occasional Paper No. 121. British Museum. p. 7. ISSN 0142-4815.
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  42. Lightfoot, C. S. (2019). "A journey of a lifetime: the Roman limes on the Euphrates - Timothy Bruce Mitford, East Of Asia Minor: Rome's Hidden Frontier, vols. 1-2 (Oxford University Press 2018)". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 32: 910–911. doi:10.1017/S1047759419000977. S2CID 232349643.
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  44. Abrahamyan, Gayane (12 March 2012). "Armenia: Could a Goddess Influence an Election Campaign?". EurasiaNet. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019.
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  46. Hamerton, Philip Gilbert (1892). Man in Art: Studies in Religious and Historical Art, Portrait, and Genre. London: Macmillan and Co. pp. 64-65.
  47. Gunning 2022, p. 223.
  48. The Times, 10 April 1873, and reprinted as ‘The bronze head of Castellani’, in C. T. Newton, Essays on Art and Archaeology (London, 1880), pp. 400–4.
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  52. Lang, David Marshall (1980). Armenia: Cradle of Civilization. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 149. ...a singularly fine bronze head of Aphrodite/Anahit...
  53. Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn, eds. (2002). The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192801371. This book reproduces the text of The Oxford History of the Classical World: Greece and the Hellenistic World (1988, ISBN 978-0192821652)
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  55. "Collector Coins". cba.am. Central Bank of Armenia. The coin is dedicated to the pagan Goddess Anahit. [...] "Goddess Anahit" is the first gold collector coin issued by the Central Bank of Armenia.
  56. Kim, Patricia Eunji (April 2021). "Monuments Under Occupation". Art Papers. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023.
  57. Gunning 2022, pp. 219–220.
  58. Kouymjian, Dickran. "Metalwork and Engraving: B. Metalwork: Silver and Gold". Armenian Studies Program. California State University, Fresno. Archived from the original on 11 August 2023.
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  63. "Անահիտ աստվածուհու բրոնզաձույլ գլուխը [The bronze head of the goddess Anahit]". armenianstamps.org (in Armenian). August 2017. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020.
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Bibliography
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