Reichenau Glossary

The Reichenau Glossary is a collection of Latin glosses likely compiled in the 8th century in northern France to assist local clergy in understanding certain words or expressions found in the Vulgate Bible.[1]

Background

Over the centuries Jerome’s translation of the Bible (c. 382–405) became more difficult to read for novice clergy as a result of the various grammatical, lexical, and phonological changes that Latin was experiencing in the course of its evolution into Romance. To facilitate interpretation, scribes would put together glossaries or collected explanations of words or phrases found in the Vulgate.[2] The words used as glosses tended to be those that were destined to survive in Romance,[3] whilst the words that needed glossing generally were not.[lower-roman 1]

What we now know as the Reichenau Glossary was compiled circa the eighth century at the Abbey of Corbie in Picardy. From there it eventually found its way to the Abbey of Reichenau, in southern Germany, where it was found in 1863 by the philologist Adolf Hotzmann.[4]

Selected entries
Term found in Vulgate Meaning Descendants Gloss(es)OriginDescendants[lower-roman 2]
abdito hidden.DAT/ABL — absconso Attested variant of CL abscondito 'hidden', a cognate of abdito.[lower-roman 3] PR. */asˈkonsu/
OFr. escons

Fr. abscons
OOcc. escos
Cat. escòs
OSp. escuso
OPt. escuso
Vnz. sconto[lower-roman 4]
It. ascoso
Ro. ascuns

abio[lower-greek 1] go_away.1SG —uadoVado meant 'hurry, rush' in CL.PR. */ˈβao/
OFr. vois[lower-roman 5]
Fr. vais
Cat. vaig
Occ. vau
Sp. voy[lower-roman 6]
Ast. vo
Pt. vou
Vnz. vago
Vgl. vis
It. vado
Nap. vaco
abgetarii[lower-greek 2] woodworkers — carpentarii CL for 'wagon makers'. PR. */karpenˈtarʲi/nom
OFr. charpentier
PR. */karpenˈtarʲos/acc
Fr. charpentiers
Occ. carpentièrs
Sp. carpinteros
Pt. carpinteiros
absintio[lower-greek 3] wormwood.DAT/ABL PR. */apˈsɪntʲo/
OFr. assenz

Fr. absinthe
OOcc. aussen
Sp. axenxo
Vgl. ascianz
OIt. assenzo

 aloxino Greek ἀλόη όξίνης[5] 'bitter aloe'. PR. */aˈlɔksɪna/
Fr. aluine
OSp. alosna
Pt. alosna
adolescentia youth Fr. adolescence iuuentus CL synonym. PR. */jʊˈβɛntu/
OFr. jovent
Occ. jovent
Cat. jovent
aculeus stinger — aculeonis Derivative based on CL aculeus + -o, -onis, originally a noun-forming suffix but serving here merely as an extender. Note the Gallo-Romance analogical nominative in place of the expected *aculeo. PR. */akuˈlʲone/
Fr. aiguillon
Occ. agulhon
Sp. aguijón
Glc. aguillón
aes bronze —eramen[lower-greek 4]Derivative based on aer- (obl. stem of aes) + -men, originally a noun-forming suffix but serving here merely as an extender. Attested in the fourth-century Codex Theodosianus.PR. */aˈramen/
Fr. airain
Occ. aram
Cat. aram
Pt. arame
Rms. arom
It. rame
Ro. aramă
Srd. ràmene
PR. */aˈramɪne/[6]
Sp. alambre
ager field PR. */ˈaɡru/
Occ. agre
Pie. aire
It. agro
Ro. agru
'field, land'

Fr. are ('acre' as the unit of measure)

 campusAlready a near-synonym in CL.PR. */ˈkampʊs/nom
OFr. chans
PR. */ˈkampu/acc
Fr. champ
Occ. camp
Cat. camp
Sp. campo
Pt. campo
Rms. champ
Vgl. cuomp
It. campo
Nap. campo
Srd. campo
Ro. câmp
annuant nod.3PL.SBJV — cinnant Verb based on LL cinnus 'wink', a word of obscure origin. PR. */ˈkɪnnant/
OFr. cenent
OOcc. cenan
Pt. acenam+pref
It. accennano+pref
anxiaretur worry.3SG.IMPF.PASS.SBJV Fr. anxiété 'anxiety'

OIt. ansia
Sp. ansia
Pt. ansia
'eagerly await'

 angustiaretur LL verb based on CL angustia 'tribulations, difficulties'. PR. */anˈɡʊstʲat/
Fr. angoisse
Occ. angoissa
Cat. angoixa
It. angoscia
aper boar PR. */ˈapru/
Srd. porcapru[lower-roman 7]		saluaticus porcus[lower-greek 5]Periphrase, lit. 'wild pig'. PR. */ˈpɔrkʊs salˈβatɪkʊs/nom
OFr. pors salvadges
PR. */ˈpɔrku salˈβatɪku/acc
Fr. porc sauvage
Occ. pòrc salvatge
Cat. porc salvatge
Rms. portg selvadi
Vgl. puarc salvutic
It. porco salvatico
Ro. porc sălbatic
arbusta orchards Fr. arbuste

Glc. albustre

 arbricellus Rendering of *arboriscellus, a postclassical compound based on CL arbor, arboris 'tree' + -cellus, a conflation of CL -culus and -ellus, both diminutive-forming suffixes. PR. */arborɪsˈkɛllu/
Fr. arbrisseau
Occ. arbrissèl
'shrubbery'
It. arboscello
'sapling'
area threshing-floor PR. */ˈarʲa/
Fr. aire
Occ. ièra
Cat. era
Sp. era
Pt. eira
It. aia
Ro. arie		 danea Frankish *dannja. Wal. dègne[7]
arena sand PR. */aˈrena/
OFr. areine
Fr. arène

Occ. arena
Cat. arena
Sp. arena
Pt. areia
It. rena
Nap. rena
Srd. rena
ARo. arinã

 sabuloCL for 'gravel'.PR. */saˈblone/
Fr. sablon
Occ. sablon
Cat. sauló
Sp. sablón
Rms. sablun
Vgl. salbaun
It. sabbione
IRo. salbun
armilla bracelet PR. */arˈmɪlla/
Sp. armella

Fr. see armillaire

 baucus Ultimately from Proto-Germanic *baugaz. OFr. bou
atram black.F.ACC.SG —nigramNearly synonymous with atram in CL and replaced the latter in LL.PR. */ˈnɪɡra/
Fr. noire
Gsc. nera
Occ. negra
Cat. negra
Sp. negra
Pt. negra
Pie. neira
Rms. naire
Vgl. niara
It. nera
Nap. neura
Ro. neagră
axis axle PR. */ˈakse/
Fr. axe
Occ. ais
Cat. eix
Sp. eje
Ast. eis
Pt. eixo
It. asse
'beam, axle'		ascialisAn attempt to render *axialis, a postclassical compound based on CL axis 'axle' + -alis, originally an adjective-forming suffix.PR. */akˈsale/
OFr. aissel
PR. */akˈsile/
Fr. essieu
benignitate kindness.ABL Fr. bénignité bonitate Often had this sense in CL. PR. */bonɪˈtate/
Fr. bonté
Occ. bontat
Cat. bontat
Sp. bondad
Pt. bondade
OIt. bontade
It. bontà
Ro. bunătate
binas in_pairs.F.PL.ADJ —duas et duasPeriphrase, literally 'two and two'.Fr. deux à deux
Sp. de dos en dos
Pt. de dois em dois
It. due a due
calamus reed-pen PR. */ˈkalamu/
Fr. chaume
'stubble, thatch'

Fr. calame 'reed-pen'

 penna CL for 'feather', reflecting a change in the usual writing implement by late antiquity. PR. */ˈpɪnna/
OFr. pene

Fr. penne
Pt. pena
It. penna
Sic. pinna
Ro. peană

callidior devious.COMP —uitiosiorComparative form of CL uitiosus 'wicked, corrupt'.PR. */βɪˈtʲosu/
OFr. voisos

Fr: vicieux
Occ. viciós
Cat. viciós
'depraved'
It. vezzoso
'charming'

calumpniam[lower-greek 6] slander.ACC PR. */kaˈlʊmnʲa/
OFr. chalonge

Fr. calomnier
OOcc. calonja
OSp. caloña
OPt. coima

 contentioCL for 'quarrel, dispute'.PR. */tenˈtʲone/-pref
OOcc. tensón

Fr. contentieux

calx heel PR. */'kalke/
OPt. couce
Glc. couce
Pt. coice
OSp. coçe
Sp. coz
'kick'		 calcaneum Compound based on calx + -aneus, originally an adjective-forming suffix but now serving merely as an extender. PR. */kalˈkanʲu/
OFr. calcain
Gsc. caucanh
Cat. calcani
OSp. calanno
Rms. chalchagn
It. calcagno
Srd. carcanzu
ARo. cãlcãnju
Ro. călcâi
caminum furnace.ACC PR. */kaˈminu/
Rms. chamin
Vgl. camain
It. camino

Fr. cheminée

 clibanum A late borrowing of Greek κλίβανος. Did not survive in Romance. —
cartallo basket.DAT/ABL —panarioCL for 'breadbasket'.PR. */paˈnarʲu/
Fr. panier
Occ. panièr
Sp. panero
Pt. paneiro
OIt. panaio
Nap. panaro
caseum cheese.ACC PR. */ˈkasʲu/
Sp. queso
Pt. queijo
Vgl. chis
Tsc. cascio
Nap. caso
Srd. casu
Ro. caș		formaticumCompound based on CL forma 'mould' + -aticus, a derivational suffix that became especially popular in Gallo-Romance. The original sense here appears to have been 'that which is made in a mould'.
Fr. fromage
Occ. formatge
Cat. formatge
PR. */kaˈsʲɔlu/dim
Rms. chaschöl
crastro[lower-greek 7] barracks.DAT/ABL PR. */ˈkastru/
Sp. castro
Pt. castro		 heribergo Frankish *heriberga. OFr. herberge
Occ. albèrgo
cementarii[lower-greek 8] stonecutters Fr. cimentiersmationesFrankish *makjo. Note the free interchange, before a following vowel, of ⟨ti⟩ and ⟨ci⟩, both representing [ts].[8]Fr. maçons
Occ. maçons
cementariis[lower-greek 9] stonecutters.DAT/ABL macionibus
cenacula chambers Fr. cénacles
mansiunculasLL diminutive of CL mansio 'lodging'.PR. */maˈsʲones/-dim
Fr. maisons
Occ. maisons
Sp. mesónes
OPt. meijãoes
Vgl. mošune
'barns'
It. magioni
'houses'
Srd. masones
'herds'
cesis[lower-greek 10] beaten.DAT/ABL.PL — flagellatis CL for 'whipped'. PR. */flaɡelˈlatos/
OFr. flaelez

Fr. flaggelés

cibaria food — cibus uiuendi A phrase reminiscent of Proto-Romance *uiuanda 'food', an alteration of CL uiuenda 'that which is necessary for life'.[9] PR. */βiˈβanda/
Fr. viande
'meat'
Occ. vianda
It. vivanda
'food'
PR. */βiˈβɛnda/
Sp. vivienda
Pt. vivenda
'residence, housing'
clibanus oven — furnus The more usual CL word. PR. */ˈfʊrnu/acc
Fr. four
Occ. forn
Cat. forn
Ara. furno
Sp. horno
Pt. fornu
Rms. furn
It. forno
Nap. fuorno
Srd. furru
ARo. furnu
cliuium[lower-greek 11] hill.ACC —montaniaRendering of *montanea, a postclassical compound based on CL mont- (obl. stem of mons 'mountain') + -anea, originally an adjective-forming suffix but now serving merely as an extender.PR. */monˈtanʲa/
Fr. montagne
Occ. montanha
Cat. muntanya
Sp. montaña
Pt. montanha
Rms. muntogna
It. montagna
Nap. muntagna
coccinus scarlet —rubeusCL for 'red'.PR. */ˈrʊβʲʊs/nom
OFr. roges
PR. */ˈrʊβʲu/acc
Fr. rouge
Gsc. arrui
Occ. roge
Cat. roig
Ara. roio
Sp. rubio
Pt. ruivo
Pie. rubi
It. robbio
Srd. rubiu
Ro. roib
colliridam[lower-greek 12] pastry.ACC — turtam Already attested in the first-century Vindolanda tablets.[10] Presumably from torta 'twisted', in reference to the shape of the pastry. PR. */ˈtʊrta/
Fr. tourte
Occ. torta
Sp. torta
Rms. turta
Vgl. turta
It. torta
Srd. turta
Ro. turtă
commutatione exchange.ABL Fr. see commutationconcambiisLate borrowing of Gaulish *cambion. The glosser has added the prefix con- by analogy with commutatione.PR. */ˈkambʲu/-pref
Fr. change
Occ. cambi
Cat. canvi
Sp. cambio
Pt. cambio
It. cambio
Ro. schimb[lower-roman 8]
compellit urge.3SG — anetset Frankish *anhattian.[11] OFr. anecet
OIt. anizza
OPt. anaça
concidit cut.3SG.PRT —taliauitVerb based on CL talea 'cutting from a plant'.PR. */taˈlʲaut/
Fr. tailla
Cat. tallà
Sp. tajó
Pt. talhou
It. tagliò
Ro. tăie
contumeliam belittlement.ACC —uerecundiamCL for 'shame, disgrace'.PR. */βerˈɡʊnʲa/
Fr. vergogne
Occ. vergonha
Cat. vergonya
OSp. verguenna
Ast. vergoña
Pt. vergonha
It. vergogna
Nap. vregogna
PR. */βerˈɡʊndʲa/
Occ. vergunja
Sp. vergüenza
OPt. vergonça
Lmb. vargonja
Srd. brigunza
coturnices quail.PL PR. */kotʊrˈnikes/
Sp. codornizes
Pt. codornizes
OIt. cotornici		quacolesOnomatopoeic.PR. */ˈkʷakkolas/
Fr. cailles
Occ. calhas
Cat. guatles
Rib. guallas
Rms. quacras
It. quaglie
PR. */kotʊrˈniklas/dim
Ro. potârnichi[lower-roman 9]
'partridges'
scabrones[lower-greek 13] hornets PR. */karaˈbrones/
Pt. cambrãos
It. calabroni		 uuapces Frankish *wapsa. Fr. guêpes
crebro[lower-greek 14] sieve.ABL — criuolo The same word after liquid dissimilation.[12] The extra ⟨o⟩ appears to be a hypercorrection. PR. */ˈkriβru/
Fr. crible
Ara. gribafem
Sp. cribo
Pt. crivo
Pie. cribi
Lmb. cribi
Srd. chilibru
Ro. ciur
PR. */kriˈβɛllu/dim
Gsc. crièth
Occ. crivèl
Cat. garbell
It. crivello
crura shins Fr. see crural (adjective, 'related to the shin')tibiaHad this sense in CL as well.PR. */ˈtiβʲa/
Fr. tige
'stem'
culmen peak PR. */ˈkʊlmen/
It. colmo
Pt. cume
Ro. culme

Fr. see culminer 'to peak'

 spicus Attested Classical variant of spica 'point' or 'ear of grain'. PR. */sˈpiku/acc
Fr. épi
Occ. espic
Frl. spi
Ro. spic
PR. */ˈkʊlmɪne/
Sp. cumbre		 PR. */sˈpika/fem
Occ. espiga
Cat. espiga
Sp. espiga
Pt. espiga
Vgl. spaica
It. spiga
Srd. ispica
cuncti all.PL —omnesCL synonym.PR. */ˈɔmnes/
OIt. onni
da give.IMP.SG PR. */ˈda/
Gsc. da
Ara. da
Sp. da
Pt. dá
Rms. dai
Vgl. du
It. dà
Srd. da
Ro. dă		 donaCL synonym and cognate that became more popular in Gallo-Romance.PR. */ˈdona/
Fr. donne
Occ. dona
Cat. dona
Ara. dona
denudare lay_bare.INF PR. */dɪsnuˈdare/
Fr. dénuder
Sp. desnudar
Pt. desnudar
'undress'		discooperireCompound based on CL dis- (a negating prefix) + cooperire 'cover up'.PR. */dɪskopeˈrire/
Fr. découvrir
Occ. descobrir
Cat. descobrir
Sp. descubrir
Pt. descobrir
Pie. descörve
It. discoprire
Ro. descoperire
detestare revile.INF Fr. détesterblasphemareA late borrowing of Greek βλασφημέειν 'id.'PR. */blasteˈmare/
Fr. blâmer, balsphémer
Occ. blaimar
Cat. blasmar
Sp. lastimar
Pt. lastimar
Vgl. blasmur
OIt. biastemmiare[upper-roman 1]
Srd. brastimar
Ro. blestemare
dilecta love.F.PASS.PTCP Fr. see délecter amata CL synonym in this context. PR. */aˈmata/
OFr. amede
Fr. aimée[upper-roman 2]
Occ. aimada
Cat. amada
Ara. amata
Sp. amada
Pt. amada
Vnz. amà
It. amata
Srd. amada
ducta lead.F.PASS.PTCP PR. */ˈdʊkta/
OFr. duite
OOcc. ducha
Cat. duita
OSp. ducha
OIt. dotta
Ro. dusă		menata[lower-greek 15]Past participle of minare, a regularization of the CL deponent minari 'threaten', with the sense evolution apparently in reference to yelling at livestock to make them move along.PR. */mɪˈnata/
OFr. menede
Fr. menée
Occ. menada
Cat. menada
Ara. menata
It. menata
Ro. mânată
emit buy.3SG.PRT —comparauitMeant 'obtain' in CL.PR. */kompaˈraut/
OFr. comprat
Gsc. crompá
Cat. comprà
Sp. compró
Pt. comprou
It. comprò
Ro. cumpără
'bought'
ensis sword Fr. see ensiforme 'in the shape of a sword'gladiusMore usual CL synonym.PR. */ˈɡlajʊs~ˈɡladʊs/nom
OFr. glais
'sword-lily'[upper-roman 3]
PR. */ˈɡlaju~ˈɡladu/acc
Fr. glai
'sword-lily'
OOcc. glazi
It. ghiado
'sword'
escas food.ACC.PL PR. */ˈɛskas/
Fr. esches
Occ. escas
Cat. esques
Sp. yescas
Pt. escas
'bait'
It. esche
'bait, tinder'
Ro. iești
'tinder'		 cibos CL synonym. PR. */ˈkɪβos/
Sp. cebos
Pt. cevos
'bait'
exacerbauerunt irritate.3PL.PRT Fr. exacerbèrent exasperauerunt CL synonym. The unprefixed version apparently survived in Proto-Romance as asprire, with a change in conjugation. PR. */asˈprirʊnt/-pref
OFr. asprirent

Fr. exaspérèrent
OIt. asprirono

exaurire drain.INF — scauare CL excauare 'hollow out, empty', from ex- + cauare, a verb based on cauus 'hollow, empty'. PR. */skaˈβare/
OFr. eschaver

Fr. excaver
Occ. escavar
Sp. escavar
Pt. escavar
Rms. stgavar
It. scavare

exterminabit uproot.3SG.FUT Fr. exterminereradicabitCL synonym.PR. */eradiˈkare/
Fr. arracher
Gsc. arrigar
OOcc. arazigar[13]
Glc. arrigar
Ro. ridicare
exuerunt strip_away.3PL.PRT — expoliauerunt CL synonym. PR. */spoˈlʲarʊnt/
OFr. espoillierent

Fr. spolièrent
It. spogliarono
OSp. espojaron[upper-roman 4]
Glc. esbollaron

faretra[lower-greek 16] arrow-case — teca sagittarum Periphrase, lit. 'container for arrows'. Theca was a Classical borrowing of Greek θήκη 'container', while sagitta was the native Latin term for 'arrow'. PR. */ˈteka/
Fr. taie
'pillowcase'
It. tega
'pod'
Ro. teacă
'case, sheath'
PR. */saˈɡɪttas/
OFr. saietes
Occ. sagetas
Cat. sagetes
Sp. saetas
Pt. setas
OIt. saette
Srd. saittas
Ro. săgeți
cupra Frankish loan, cf. German Köcher. OFr. cuivre
fatigatus tired Fr. fatiguélassusCL synonym.PR. */ˈlassʊs/
Fr. las
Occ. las
femur thigh Fr. fémur (thigh bone)coxaCL for 'hip'.PR. */ˈkɔksa/
Fr. cuisse
Occ. cuèissa
Cat. cuixa
Sp. cuja
Pt. cuxa
Pie. cheussa
Rms. cossa
Vgl. copsa
It. coscia
Srd. cossa
Ro. coapsă
cingolo[lower-greek 17]Meant 'belt' in CL.PR. */ˈkɪnɡla/
OFr. cengle
Fr. sangle
Occ. cengla
Cat. cengle
Pt. cilha
Vnz. senghia
It. cinghia
PR. */ˈklɪnɡa/
Nap. chienga
Ro. chingă
ferus savage PR. */ˈfɛrʊs/nom
OFr. fiers
'proud'		durusCL for 'harsh, severe'.PR. */ˈdurʊs/nom
OFr. durs
Rms. dirs[lower-roman 10]
PR. */ˈfɛru/acc
Fr. fier

'proud'
Cat. fer

'ugly'
It. fiero
'proud'
Sp. fiero
'wild'

 PR. */ˈduru/acc
Fr. dur
Occ. dur
Cat. dur
Sp. duro
Pt. duro
Lmb. dur
Rms. dir
Vgl. doir
It. duro
feruet boil.3SG PR. */ˈfɛrβet/
Sp. hierve
Pt. ferve
Ro. fierbe
'id.'
It. ferve
'has a fever'		bullitCL synonym.PR. */ˈbʊllɪt/
OFr. bolt
Fr. bout
Occ. bolhe
Cat. bulle
Sp. bulle
'id.'
Pt. bule
'fidgets'
It. bole
Nap. vodde
Srd. buddit
'id.'
fex dregs — lias Gaulish *ligas. Fr. lies
flare blow.INF —suflare[lower-greek 18]CL synonym.PR. */sʊfˈflare/
Fr. souffler
Occ. soflar
Ara. soflar
OSp. sollar
Pt. soprar
Rms. suflar
It. soffiare
Ro. suflare
flasconem flask.ACC OFr. flascon
Fr. flacon, flasque
Occ. flascon
Cat. flascó
Sp. frasco
Pt. frasco
It. fiasco		 buticulam Diminutive of butis~buttis 'cask', a late borrowing of Greek βοῦττις. PR. */bʊtˈtɪkla/
Fr. bouteille
Occ. botelha
fletur weep.3SG.PASS — planctur[lower-greek 19] CL for 'there is mourning'. PR. */ˈplanɡere/inf
Fr. plaindre
Occ. planher
Cat. plànyer
OSp. llanner
OPt. changer
Vnz. piànzar
Vgl. plungro
It. piangere
Nap. chiagne
Sic. chiànciri
Srd. prangere
Ro. plângere
forum marketplace PR. */ˈfɔru/
OFr. fuer
Fr. fur
'extent'
Sp. fuero
'law'
Ro. for
'plaza'		mercatumCL synonym in this context.PR. */merˈkatu/
OFr. marchiet
Fr. marché
Occ. mercat
Cat. mercat
Sp. mercado
Pt. mercado
Rms. marchà
Vnz. marcà
It. mercato
Srd. mercadu
framea type of sword — gladius bisacutus Lit. 'double-edged sword'. Bisacutus is a compound based on CL bis 'twice' + acutus 'sharpened'. For descendants of gladius 'sword', see entry for ensis. PR. */bɪsaˈkuta/
Fr. besaiguë
'carpenter's tool
with two sides'
It. bisacuta
'double-edged'
furent[lower-greek 20] steal.3PL.SBJV PR. */ˈfurent/
It. furino
Ro. fure		 involent CL for 'sweep down, carry off'. PR. */ˈɪmβolent/
OFr. emblent
OOcc. emblen[14]
OCat. emblen
PR. */ɪmˈβolent/
It. involino
furuus brown —brunusFrankish *brūn.Fr. brun
Occ. brun
Cat. bru
Sp. bruno
Pt. bruno
Rms. brun
Vgl. broin
It. bruno
fusiles melt.PASS.PCP.PL Fr. fusible ('able to melt')fundutasPostclassical past participle[15] of fundere 'melt'.PR. */fʊnˈdutas/
Fr. fondues
Occ. fondudas
OIt. fondute
'melted'
galea helmet —helmusFrankish *helm.OFr. helmeacc
Fr. heaume
Sp. yelmo
Pt. elmo
It. elmo
genuit give_birth.3SG.PRT —generauitCL synonym.PR. */ɡeneˈraut/
OFr. gendrat
Fr. engendra+pref
Gsc. engendrá+pref
Cat. engendrà+pref
Sp. engendró+pref
Pt. gerou
gratia thanks Fr. rendre grâces (to thank)mercesCL for 'goods, wages'.PR. */merˈkede/
OFr. mercit
Fr. merci
Occ. mercé
'mercy, thanks'
Sp. merced
Pt. mercê
'mercy'
OIt. mercé
'thanks'
It. mercede
'mercy'
abenas[lower-greek 21] reins.ACC — retinacula iumentorum Periphrase, lit. 'reins for pack animals'. CL retinacula 'reins' is reminiscent of Proto-Romance *retina 'id.', a deverbal of retinere 'hold back'. PR. */ˈrɛtɪnas/
OFr. rednes~resnes
Fr. rênes
Occ. retnas
Cat. regnes
Sp. riendas
Pt. rédeas
It. redine[upper-roman 5]
PR. */juˈmɛntu/
Fr. jument
'mare'
OSp. iumiento
Sp. jumento
Pt. jumento
It. giumento
Nap. jummèntafem
'pack animal'
arundine[lower-greek 22] reed.ABL — ros Frankish *rausa. OFr. ros
Occ. raus
OFr. roseldim
Fr. roseau
ebitatum[lower-greek 23] weaken.ACC.PASS.PTCP — bulcatum Past participle of *bullicare, a compound based on CL bullire 'boil' + -icare, a verb-forming suffix. PR. */bʊllɪˈkatu/
OFr. bolgiet
Fr. bougé
Occ. bolegat
Cat. bellugat
Ara. esbolligato+pref
'stirred, agitated'
It. bulicato
'boiled'
iacinctinas[lower-greek 24] hyacinth.F.PL.ACC.ADJ PR. */jaˈkintu/
Fr. jacinthefem
Occ. jacint
Cat. jacint		 persas Ultimately from Persia, perhaps because garments imported from there had this color. Fr. perse
'blue-green'
hiems winter —ibernusNominalization of CL hibernus 'wintry', an adjective derived from hiems.PR. */imˈβɛrnʊs/nom
OFr. ivers
OOcc. iverns
PR. */imˈβɛrnu/acc
OFr. ivern
Fr. iver
Occ. ivèrn
Cat. hivern
Sp. invierno
Ast. iviernu
Pt. invernu
Rms. inviern
Vgl. inviarno
It. inverno
Srd. iberru
Ro. iarnăfem
horreis granaries.DAT/ABL PR. */ˈorrʲu/
Cat. orri
Ast. orru
Srd. orriu		 spicariisCompound based on CL spica 'ear of grain' + -arium 'place for keeping'.PR. */spiˈkarʲu/
OWal. spir[16]
'room for provisions'
Grm. Speicher
'granary'
iacere throw.INF — iactare CL frequentative of iacere. PR. */jekˈtare/
Fr. jeter
Occ. getar
Cat. gitar
Ara. chitar
Sp. echar
It. gettare
Nap. jettà
Srd. ghettare
ictus strike PR. */ˈɪktu/acc
Pt. eito
'row'		 colpus CL borrowing of Greek κόλαφος. PR. */ˈkɔlpʊs/nom
OFr. cols
PR. */ˈkɔlpu/acc
OFr. colp
Fr. coup
Occ. còp
Cat. cop
It. colpo
id it.NEUT — hoc CL for 'this'. PR. */ˈɔk/
OFr. uec
Occ. o
Cat. ho
'this'
Occ. òc
OCat. oc
'yes'
iecore liver.ABL PR. */jeˈkʷarʲa/[upper-roman 6]
Pt. iguaria[lower-roman 11]
'delicacies'		 ficato CL ficatum 'foie gras', lit. 'fig-fattened liver', calqued from Greek συκωτόν. PR. */ˈfɪkatu/
Fr. foie
Ast. fegadu
It. fegato
PR. */fiˈkatu/
Frl. fiât
Ro. ficat
PR. */ˈfikatu/
Sp. higado
Pt. figato
Rms. fio
Nap. ficato
Srd. ficadu
PR. */ˈfɪtaku/[17]
Occ. fetge
Cat. fetge
Pie. fidic
Lmb. fideg
indutus dress.PASS.PTCP — uestitus CL synonym. PR. */βesˈtitu/acc
OFr. vestit
Occ. vestit
Cat. vestit
Ara. vestito
Sp. vestido
Pt. vestido
Vgl. vestiat
It. vestito
Srd. bestiu
PR. */βesˈtutu/acc
OFr. vestut
Fr. vêtu
OIt. vestuto
institis bandages.ABL — fasciolis CL synonym. PR. */fasˈkʲɔlas/
OIt. fasciuole
Ro. fâșioare
nasculis Frankish *nastila. OFr. nasles
Wal. nâles
It. nastrimasc
insultaret offend.3SG.IMPF.SBJV Fr. insulter inganaret Based on CL gannire 'snarl' with a prefix and a change in conjugation. PR. */ɪnɡanˈnare/
OFr. enjaner
Occ. enganar
Cat. enganyar
Sp. engañar
It. ingannare
Ro. îngânare
isset go.3SG.PLUP.SBJV PR. */ˈisset/
Ara. isse
Lad. jissa
OIt. gisse
Nap. jesse
Ro. ise		 ambulassetCL for 'walk'.PR. */amˈblasset/
OFr. alast
Fr. alât
Sp. amblase
It. ambiasse
Ro. umblase
ita yes —sicAlready used in the sense of 'yes' in Old Latin.PR. */ˈsik/
Fr. si
Occ. si
'actually, yes'
Cat. sí
Sp. sí
Pt. sim[lower-roman 12]
Rms. schi
It. sì
'yes'
Ro. și
'and'
iuger acre — iornalis Rendering of *diurnalis, a postclassical compound based on CL diurnus 'daily' + -alis, an adjective-forming suffix. In France this term developed the sense of 'land that can be worked by oxen in a day'. PR. */jʊrˈnale/
OFr. jornal
'journal,
measure of land'
Fr. journal[lower-roman 13]
Occ. jornal
It. giornale
'journal'
iugulate kill.IMP.PL PR. */jʊˈɡlatɪs/
Ro. junghiați

Fr. juguler

 occidite CL synonym See necetur.
ius law PR. */ˈjure/
OSp. jur
OPt. jur
It. giure		 legemCL near-synonym.PR. */ˈleɡe/
OFr. lei
Fr. loi
Occ. lei
Cat. llei
Sp. ley
Pt. lei
Pie. lege
Vgl. lig
It. legge
OSrd. leghe
Ro. lege
potestatemCL for 'power, authority'.PR. */potesˈtate/
OFr. podestet
OOcc. pozestat
OIt. podestade
It. podestà
labium[lower-alpha 1] tub — conca[lower-alpha 2] Could designate a sort of vessel in CL, but the main sense was 'shell'. Borrowed from Greek κόγχη. PR. */ˈkɔnka/
Fr. conche
Occ. conca
Cat. conca
Sp. cuenca
It. conca
'basin, watershed'
Srd. conca
'head'
lamento wail.1SG Fr. lamenteploroCL for 'weep'.PR. */ˈploro/
OFr. plour
Fr. pleure
Occ. plori
Cat. ploro
Rib. plloro
Ara. ploro
Sp. lloro
Pt. choro
Pie. piur
OIt. pioro
laterum bricks.GEN.PL — teularum[lower-alpha 3] CL for 'roof-tiles'. PR. */ˈteɡʊlas/
OFr. tiules~teilles
Fr. tuiles
Occ. teulas
Cat. teules
Sp. tejas
Ast. teya
Pt. telhas
Vgl. tacle
It. tegole
Srd. téulas
'tiles'
Tsc. tegghie
It. teglie
'baking-trays'
lebes boiler —chaldaria[lower-alpha 4]LL compound based on CL calid- (obl. stem of calidus 'hot') + -aria, a noun-forming suffix.PR. */kalˈdarʲa/
OFr. chaldiere
Fr. chaudière
Gsc. caudera
Cat. caldera
Sp. caldera
Pt. caldeira
Vgl. caldira
It. caldaia
Ro. căldare
leua[lower-alpha 5] left.F.SG.ADJ —sinistraCL synonym.PR. */sɪˈnɛstra/[lower-roman 14]
Fr. senestre
Occ. senèstra
OSp. siniestra
OPt. sẽestra
Rms. saniestra
OIt. sinestra
liberos children.ACC —infantesCL for 'babies'.PR. */ɪnˈfantes/
Fr. enfants
Occ. enfants
Cat. infants
'id.'
OSp. ifantes
OPt. ifantes
'heirs-apparent'
Rms. uffants
'id.'
It. fanti
'infantry'
litus shore PR. */ˈlitu/
It. lido

Fr. littoral

 ripaCL synonym.PR. */ˈripa/
Fr. rive
Occ. riba
Cat. riba
Sp. riba
Pt. riba
Rms. riva
Vgl. raipa
It. riva
Ro. râpă
ludebant play.3PL.IMPF —iocabantRegularization of the CL deponent verb iocari 'jest, joke'.PR. */joˈkaβant/
OFr. joevent
Fr. jouaient
Occ. jogavan
Cat. jugaven
Ara. chugaban
Sp. jugaban
Pt. jogavam
Rms. giogavan
Vgl. jocua
It. giocavano
Ro. jucau
luto mud.DAT/ABL PR. */ˈlʊtu/
It. loto
Sp. lodo
Pt. lodo
Ro. lut
Srd. lutu		 fecis[lower-alpha 6] CL for 'dregs, sediment'. PR. */ˈfɛkes/
It. feci
Sp. heces
Pt. fezes
mala punica pomegranates —mala granataPeriphrase, lit. 'seeded apples'.PR. */mɪlaɡraˈnata/
Occ. milgrana
Cat. magrana
Ara. mengrana
OSp. milgrana
Sp. granada
Pt. granada
It. melagrana
malus mast —mastusFrankish *mast.Fr. mât
Occ. mast
manipulos bundles.ACC PR. */maˈnʊkli/nom
OFr. manoil
OIt. manocchi
Ro. mănuchi		 garbasFrankish *garba.Fr. gerbes
Occ. garbas
Cat. garbes
Ara. garbas
Lig. garbe
PR. */maˈnʊklos/acc
OFr. manoilz
Cat. manolls
Sp. manojos
Pt. molhos
mares male animals —masculiCL diminutive of mas, the singular of mares.PR. */ˈmaskʊli/nom
OFr. masle
Vnz. mas-ci
Frl. mascli
It. maschi
Ro. mascuri
'male pigs'
PR. */ˈmaskʊlos/acc
OFr. masles
Fr. mâles
Occ. mascles
Cat. mascles
Rib. mascllos
Ara. masclos
Sp. machos
Pt. machos
Rms. mascels
Srd. mascros
mergulum diver_bird.ACC — coruum marinum Lit. 'sea-crow'. PR. */ˈkɔrβu maˈrinu/
Fr. cormoran
Occ. corb marin
Cat. corb marí
Sp. cuervo marino
Pt. corvo marinho
milites soldiers Fr. militairesseruientesCL for 'servants'.PR. */serˈβʲɛntes/
Fr. sergeants
'sergeants'
Occ. sirvents
Cat. servents
Sp. sirvientes
'servants'
minas threats.ACC — manaces Feminine noun based on CL minacia 'menacing'. PR. */mɪˈnakʲas/
Fr. menaces
Gsc. miaças
Occ. menaças
OSp. menaças
OPt. mẽaças
It. minacce
mutuo acceperam borrow.1SG.PLUP —impruntatum habeo*Impruntare is a rendering of *impromutuare, a postclassical compound based on mutuare (a regularization of the CL deponent verb mutuari 'borrow') with the prefixes in- and pro-. The overall expression impruntatum habeo (lit. 'I have [it] borrowed) reflects the characteristic Romance periphrastic preterite.PR. */ˈajo ɪmprumʊˈtatu/
OFr. ai empruntet
Occ. ai empruntat
Ro. am imprumutat
mutuum dare lend.INF — prestare[lower-alpha 7] CL for 'provide, furnish'. PR. */presˈtare/
Fr. prêter
Occ. prestar
Cat. prestar
Sp. prestar
Pt. prestar
It. prestare
necetur kill.3SG.PASS.SBJV PR. */neˈkare/
OFr. neier
Fr. noyer
Occ. negar
Sp. anegar+pref
It. annegare+pref
ARo. necare		 occideturCL synonym. In all of Romance the sense of necare specialized to 'kill by drowning', so this gloss serves to clarify the intended meaning 'kill'.PR. */okˈkidere~au̯kˈkidere/
OFr. ocidre
Occ. aucir
It. uccidere
Ro. ucidere
Srd. occhidere
nemini nobody.DAT PR. */ˈnemɪni/
Ro. nimeni		nulliCL synonym.PR. */ˈnullu/acc
Fr. nul
Occ. nul
Cat. nul
Vgl. nul
It. nullo
Srd. nuddu
Sic. nuḍḍu
'none, futile'
nent weave.3PL — filant Verb based on CL filum 'thread'. PR. */ˈfilant/
Fr. filent
Gsc. hilan
Occ. filan
Cat. filen
It. filano
Sp. hilan
Pt. filam
nonnulli several —multiCL synonym.PR. */ˈmʊlti/nom
OFr. molt
OOcc. much
It. molti
Ro. mulți
PR. */ˈmʊltos/acc
OFr. molz
Cat. mols
Sp. muchos
Ast. munchos
Pt. muitos[lower-roman 15]
non pepercit not spare.3SG.PRT — non sparniauit Frankish *sparanjan. OFr. nen esparnat
It. non sparagnò
nouacula razor PR. */noˈβakla/
Cat. navalla
Sp. navaja
Ast. navaja
Pt. navalha		rasoriumCL rad-, stem of radere 'shave'), + -sorium, a postclassical suffix denoting an instrument.[18]PR. */raˈsorʲu/
Fr. rasoir
Occ. rasor
Cat. raor
Sp. rasero
It. rasoio
nouerca stepmother PR. */noˈβɛrka/
ARo. nuearcã		matrastraCompound based on CL matr- (oblique stem of mater 'mother') + -astra 'wannabe' (feminine variant of -aster).PR. */maˈtrastra/
Fr. marâtre
Occ. mairastra
Cat. madrastra
Sp. madrastra
Pt. madrasta
Pie. marastra
Lmb. madrastra
nosse know.INF —scireCL near-synonym.PR. */sˈkire/
Ro. știre
Srd. ischire
nutare wobble.INF Fr. nutation cancellare CL for 'criss-cross'. The Romance sense developed from the notion of crossing one's legs while walking. PR. */kankelˈlare/
Fr. chanceler
ocreas greaves.ACC —husasFrankish *hosa.OFr. hueses
OSp. uesas
OPt. osas
OIt. uose
offendas drive_away.2SG.SBJV — abattasPrefixed alteration of CL battuas.PR. */abˈbattas/
Fr. abattes
Occ. abatas
Cat. abatis
Sp. abatas
Pt. abatas
It. abbatta
onager wild donkey Fr. onagreasinus saluaticusAsinus is CL for 'donkey'. For saluaticus, see entry for aper.PR. */ˈasɪnʊs/nom
OFr. asnes
PR. */ˈasɪnu/acc
OFr. asne
Fr. âne
Gsc. aso
Occ. asne
Cat. ase
Sp. asno
Pt. asno
Lig. âze
Pie. aso
Lmb. asen
Rms. asen
Vnz. axeno
It. asino
Ro. asen
Srd. áinu
onustus burden.PASS.PTCP —carcatusPast participle of *carricare, a verb based on CL carr- (obl. stem of carrus 'wagon') + icare, a verb-forming suffix.PR. */karrɪˈkatʊs/nom
OFr. chargiez
OOcc. cargats
PR. */karrɪˈkatu/acc
OFr. chargiet
Fr. chargé
Occ. cargat
Cat. carregat
Sp. cargado
Pt. carregado
It. caricato
Ro. încărcat+pref
oppidis towns.DAT/ABL —ciuitatibusLL for 'cities', a semantic alteration of CL ciuitas 'citizenry'.PR. */kiβˈtates/
Fr. cités
Occ. ciutats
Cat. ciutats
Sp. ciudades
Pt. cidades
Rms. citads
Vnz. sità
OIt. cittadi
It. città
'cities'
Ro. cetăți
'fortresses'
castellisCL for 'fortresses'.PR. */kasˈtɛlli/nom
OFr. chastel
OOcc. castel
Vnz. castełi
OIt. castegli
It. castelli
Sic. casteḍḍi
PR. */kasˈtɛllos/acc
OFr. chastels
Fr. châteaux
Gsc. castèths
Occ. castèls
Cat. castells
Sp. castillos
Ast. castiellos
Pt. castelos
Rms. chastès
Srd. casteddos
opilio shepherd —berbicariusCompound based on CL ueruex 'ram' + -arius, a suffix denoting occupation.PR. */berbɪˈkarʲʊs/nom
OFr. bergiers
PR. */berbɪˈkarʲu/acc
OFr. bergier
Fr. berger
Lim. bargier
Ro. berbecar
PR. */berbeˈkarʲu/
Srd. berbecarju
oportet be_fitting.3SG Fr. opportunconuenitHad this sense in CL as well.PR. */komˈβɛnɪt/
Fr. convient
Occ. conven
Cat. convé
Sp. conviene
Pt. convém
It. conviene
Ro. cuvine
optimos best.ACC.PL Fr. optimauxmelioresCL for 'better'. In Romance it also came to mean 'best'.PR. */meˈlʲores/
Fr. meilleurs
Occ. melhors
Cat. millors
Sp. mejores
Ast. meyores
Pt. melhores
Rms. megliers
It. migliori
optimum best.ACC.SG Fr. optimalualde bonumPeriphrase, lit. 'very good'. Valde survived as the first element of OFr. vaudoux and vaupute.[19]PR. */ˈbɔnu/
OFr. buen, bon
Fr. bon
Occ. bon
Cat. bo
Sp. bueno
Pt. bom
Rms. bun
Vgl. bun
It. buono
Ro. bun
ore mouth —buccaCL for 'cheek'.PR. */ˈbʊkka/
Fr. bouche
Occ. boca
Cat. boca
Sp. boca
Pt. boca
Rms. boca
Vgl. buca
It. bocca
'mouth'
Ro. bucă
'cheek'
ostendit show.3SG.PRT Fr. ostentationmonstrauitCL synonym.PR. */mosˈtraut/
OFr. mostrat
Fr. montra[lower-roman 16]
Gsc. mostrà
Cat. mostrà
Sp. mostró
Pt. mostrou
It. mostrò
Ro. mustră
oues sheep.PL PR. */ˈɔβes/
Ro. oi		 berbicesCL ueruex 'castrated ram'.PR. */berˈbikes/
Fr. brebis
OOcc. berbitz[20]
OIt. berbici
PR. */oˈβɪklas/dim
Fr. ouailles
Occ. oelhas
Lim. auvelhas
Cat. ovelles
Ara. uellas
Sp. ovejas
Pt. ovelhas		 PR. */berˈbekes/
Srd. berbeches
Ro. berbeci
paliurus Christ's thorn — cardonis A compound based on CL cardus 'thistle' + -o, -onis, originally a noun-forming suffix but serving here merely as an extender. Note the Gallo-Romance analogical nominative in place of the expected *cardo PR. */karˈdone/acc
Fr. chardon
Occ. cardon
It. cardone
Sic. carduni
PR. */ˈkardo/nom
Sp. cardo
Pt. cardo
It. cardo
Sic. cardo
pallium cloak — drappum Frankish *drāpi. Fr. drap
Occ. drap
Cat. drap
Sp. trapo
Pt. trapo
Vgl. drap
It. drappo
Srd. drappu
papilionis tent.GEN.SG PR. */papɪˈlʲone/
OFr. paveilun
'butterfly, pavilion'
Fr. pavillon
Occ. pabalhon
Ct. pavelló
Sp. pabellón
It. padiglione
'pavilion'
Fr. papillon[lower-roman 17]
Occ. parpalhon
Cat. papallona
OIt. parpaglione
'butterfly'		 trauis Gallo-Romance analogical nominative in place of CL trabs 'beam' or 'structure built around a beam' (obl. stem trab-). OFr. tresnom
PR. */ˈtraβe/acc
OFr. tref
'tent, beam'
OOcc. trau[21]
Pt. trave
It. trave
pabula[lower-alpha 8] blister — uisica[lower-alpha 9] Could have this meaning in CL as well, but its main sense was 'bladder'. PR. */βekˈsika/
Fr. vessie
Occ. vessiga
Cat. veixiga
Sp. vejiga
Ast. vexiga
Pt. bexiga
It. vescica
Srd. bussica
Ro. bășică
'blister, bladder'
paria alike.NEUT.PL.ADJ PR. */ˈparʲa/
Fr. paire
Pie. paira
It. paia
'pair(s)'		 similia CL synonym in this context. PR. */ˈsɪmɪles/
OFr. sembles
OOcc. sembles
pera bag — sportellam CL for 'little basket'. PR. */sporˈtɛlla/
OOcc. esportèla[22]
Sp. esportilla
OIt. sportella
Srd. isportedda
peribet[lower-alpha 10] bear.3SG — perportat The context is Ioannes testimonium perhibet (John 1:15), 'John bears witness'. Fr. il porte témoignage
It. porta testimonianza
pes foot —pedisGallo-Romance analogical nominative in place of CL pes (obl. stem ped-).OFr. pieznom
OOcc. pes
PR. */ˈpɛde/acc
OFr. piet
Fr. pied
Occ. pè
Cat. peu
Ara. piet
Sp. pié
Pt. pe
Rms. pe
Vgl. pi
It. piede
Srd. pede
ORo. piez
pignus pledge PR. */ˈpɪɡnʊs/
OSp. pennos
Sp. peño		 uuadius Frankish *waddi. Fr. gage
Occ. gatge
'will, testament'
PR. */ˈpɪɡnu/
Rms. pegn
It. pegno
PR. */ˈpɪɡnora/
Sp. prenda
OIt. pegnora
PR. */pɪɡˈnore/
Pt. penhor
pingues fat.PL.ADJ —grassiAn alteration of CL crassi.PR. */ˈɡrassi/nom
OFr. gras
Vgl. gres
It. grassi
Ro. grași
PR. */ˈɡrassos/acc
Fr. gras
Cat. grassos
Sp. grasos
Pt. grassos
Rms. gras
Srd. grassos
plaustra carts —carraAlteration of CL carrus 'wagon' to the neuter gender.PR. */ˈkarras/
Rm. care
PR. */ˈkarri/
OFr. char
It. carri
PR. */ˈkarros/
Fr. chars
Occ. carris
Cat. carros
Sp. carros
Pt. carros
pulempta[lower-alpha 11] barley PR. */poˈlɛnta/
Vgl. polianta
It. polenta
Srd. pulenta		 farina CL for 'flour'. PR. */faˈrina/
Fr. farine
Gsc. haria
Occ. farina
Cat. farina
Sp. harina
Pt. farinha
Pie. farin-a
Rms. farina
Vgl. faraina
It. farina
Srd. farina
Ro. făină
pupillam pupil.ACC Fr. pupille nigrum in oculo Periphrase, lit. 'the black (part) in an eye'. Fr. le noir de l'œil
ponatur put.3SG.PASS.SBJV PR. */ˈponere/
Fr. pondre
Gsc. póner
Occ. pondre
Cat. pondre
Rib. ponre
'lay an egg'
Sp. poner
OPt. põer
Pt. pôr
It. porre
Srd. ponnere
Ro. punere
'put, place'		 mittatur CL mittere 'send' came to mean 'put' in LL. PR. */ˈmɪttere/
Fr. mettre
Gsc. méter
Occ. metre
Cat. metre
Rib. metre
Sp. meter
Pt. meter
It. mettere
Srd. mintere
ponderatus burdened Fr. pondéral (adj. 'related to weight') grauiatus Past participle of *grauiare, postclassical verb based on CL grauis 'heavy, burdened'. PR. */ɡraˈβʲatʊs/
OFr. gregiez
poplite hock.ABL Fr. poplité (adj. 'related to the hock') iuncture ianiculorum[lower-alpha 12] Periphrase, lit. 'junctions of the knees'. PR. */junkˈturas/
Fr. jointures
Occ. jonchuras
Cat. juntures
Sp. junturas
Pt. junturas
It. giunture
PR. */ɡeˈnʊkli/nom
OFr. genoil
Vgl. zenacle
It. ginocchi
Ro. genunchi
PR. */ɡeˈnʊklos/acc
OFr. genoilz
Fr. genoux
Occ. genolhs
Cat. genolls
Ara. chenollos
Sp. hinojos
Pt. joelhos
Rms. schanugls
Srd. brenucos
pruina frost PR. */pruˈina/
Fr. bruine
'drizzle'
OOcc. bruina
'frost'
Vnz. puìna
'ricotta cheese'
It. brina
'frost'		 gelata Compound based on CL gel- (obl. stem of gelus 'frost') + -ata, a Romance noun-forming suffix. PR. */ɡeˈlata/
OFr. gelede
Fr. gelée
Occ. gelada
Cat. gelada
Sp. helada
Pt. geada
Pie. gelada
It. gelata
Srd. ghelada
pugione dagger.ABL —lanceaCL for 'spear'.PR. */ˈlankʲa/
Fr. lance
Occ. lança
Cat. llança
Sp. lanza
Pt. lança
It. lancia
Srd. lantza
pulchra beautiful.F.SG —bellaCL synonym.PR. */ˈbɛlla/
Fr. belle
Occ. bèla
Cat. bella
Ara. bella
Rms. bella
Vgl. biala
It. bella
Sic. beḍḍa
pusillum small.ACC Fr. pusillanime (who is easily frightened) paruum CL synonym. PR. */ˈparβu/
OFr. parf
'small'
Pt. parvo
'small, dumb'
PR. */ˈparβʊlu/dim
OIt. parvolo
It. pargolo
'boy'
pustula blister Fr. pustule malis clauis[lower-alpha 13] Clauus had this sense in CL as well, although its main meaning was 'nail'. PR. */ˈklaβu/
Fr. clou
'nail, pustule'
OOcc. clau[lower-roman 18]
Cat. clau
Rib. cllau
Ara. clau
Sp. clavo
Pt. cravu
Pie. ciòv
OIt. chiavo[upper-roman 7]
Srd. cravu
'nail'
regit rule.3SG PR. */ˈrɛɡɪt/

Fr. règne
It. regge
Srd. reghet

 gubernat CL synonym borrowed from Greek κῠβερνᾰ́ειν. PR. */ɡʊˈβɛrnat/
OFr. governet
Fr. gouverne
Occ. governa
Cat. governa
Sp. gobierna
Pt. governa
It. governa
Srd. cuberrat
remetieur remeasure.3SG.FUT PR. */meˈtire/
Fr. remettre (as in, remit one's sins)

Sp. medir
Pt. medir
Srd. metire

 remensurabit Verb based on CL mensura 'measure'. PR. */mesuˈrare/
Fr. mesurer
Occ. mesurar
Cat. mesurar
Sp. mesurar
Pt. mesurar
Rms. mesirar
It. misurare
Ro. măsurare
repente suddenly — subito CL synonym. PR. */ˈsʊβɪto/
OFr. sode[upper-roman 8]
Fr. subite

Occ. sopte
Cat. sopte[upper-roman 9]

reppererunt find.3PL.PRET Fr. repérèrent inuenerunt CL synonym. OFr. *envindrent[upper-roman 10]
OSrd. *imbennerun
res thing PR. */ˈres/nom
Gsc. arrés
Occ. res
Cat. res
'nothing'
Sp. res
Srd. rese
'head of cattle'		causaCL for 'subject matter'.PR. */ˈkau̯sa/
Fr. chose
Occ. causa
Cat. cosa
Sp. cosa
OPt. cousa
Pt. coisa
Rms. chossa
Vgl. causa
It. cosa
OSrd. casa
PR. */ˈrɛne/acc
OFr. rien
'thing'
Fr. rien
Lim. ren
Gsc. arrén
OPt. ren
Glc. ren
'nothing'
respectant look_back.3PL PR. */resˈpɛktant/
Pt. respeitam
It. rispettano
'respect'

Fr. respectent 'respect'

 reuuardantCompound based on Frankish *wardōn 'watch + re-.Fr. regardent
Occ. gardan-pref
Cat. guarden-pref
Sp. guardan-pref
Pt. guardam-pref
Lmb. vàrden
Rms. vurdan-pref
It. riguardano
Nap. guardano-pref
restant stay.3PL Fr. restent remanent CL synonym. PR. */reˈmanent/
OFr. remainent
Cat. romanen
It. rimangano
OSp. remane
Ro. rămân
reus guilty PR. */ˈrɛu/
Vgl. ri
It. rio
Ro. rău
'bad, evil'		culpabilisLL synonym.PR. */kʊlˈpaβɪle/
Fr. coupable
Occ. colpable
It. colpevole
'guilty'
reueretur fear.3SG — uerecundatur CL for 'feel shame'. PR. */βerˈɡʊndat/
OFr. vergondet
rostrum beak PR. */ˈrostru/

Fr. rostre
Sp. rostro
Pt. rosto
'face'
Ro. rost
'mouth'

 beccusA borrowing of Gaulish *bekkos.PR. */ˈbɛkkʊs/
OFr. bes
PR. */ˈbɛkku/
Fr. bec
Occ. bèc
Cat. bec
Sp. pico
Pt. bico
It. becco
rufa reddish.3SG Fr. rougesoraFrankish *saur.Fr. saur
'smoked', 'old', 'yellow'
Occ. saura
'yellow'
Cat. saura
'dark yellow'
ruga wrinkle PR. */ˈruɡa/
Fr. ride ('wrinkle')
It. ruga
'wrinkle'
ARo. arugã
'sheep-gate'		frunceturaCompound based on Frankish *hrunkja 'wrinkle' + -tura, a noun-forming suffix.Fr. fronçure
rupem rock.ACC PR. */ˈrupe/
It. rupe
'cliff'		 petram CL borrowing of Greek πέτρα. PR. */ˈpɛtra/
OFr. piedre
Fr. pierre
Occ. pèira
Cat. pedra
Sp. piedra
Pt. pedra
Vgl. pitra
It. pietra
Ro. piatră
saga cloak PR. */ˈsaja/
Fr. saie
OSp. saya
Pt. saia
'skirt'		 cortina LL for 'curtain', from an earlier CL term for a type of cauldron. The sense evolution is unclear. PR. */korˈtina/
Fr. courtine
Occ. cortina
Cat. cortina
Sp. cortina
OPt. cortinha
It. cortina
sagma packsaddle — soma The same word after a number of sound changes. PR. */ˈsau̯ma/
Fr. somme
'packsaddle'
Occ. sauma
'female donkey'
Cat. salma
'ton'
It. soma[upper-roman 11]
'load, burden'
It. salma
'corpse'
sella CL synonym PR. */ˈsɛlla/
Fr. selle
Occ. sèla
Cat. sella
OSp. siella
Sp. silla
Pt. sela
Vgl. siala
It. sella
Sic. seḍḍa
Srd. sedda
Ro. șa
'saddle'
saniore healthy.COMP.ABL Fr. sain plus sano Periphrase, lit. 'more healthy'. Synthetic comparative characteristic of Romance. PR. */plus ˈsanu/
Fr. plus sain
Occ. pus san
OCat. pus san
OPt. chus são
Lig. chu san
Pie. pi san
It. più sano
Srd. prus sanu
sarcina package PR. */ˈsarkɪna/
Ro. sarcină
ARo. sartsinã		bisatiaReinterpretation of CL bisaccia 'double-sacks' as a feminine singular noun.PR. */bɪˈsakʲa/
Fr. besace
Gsc. besaça
Occ. biaço
It. bisaccia
sartago pan PR. */sarˈtaɡɪne/
Occ. sartan
Nap. sartayine
Sp. sartén
Glc. sartaña
Pt. sertã
Srd. sartaghine		 patellaCL synonymPR. */paˈtɛlla/
OFr. padela
Fr. poêle
Occ. padèla
Cat. paella
Sp. padilla
Rms. padella
It. padella
Sic. pareḍḍa
scinifes gnats —cincellasLikely of onomatopoeic origin. PR. */tʲinˈtʲalas/
OFr. cinceles
Vnz. sginsałe
It. zanzare
Ro. țânțarimasc
segetes crops —messesCL synonym.PR. */ˈmɛsses/
Ct. messes
It. messi
Sp. mieses
Pt. messes
PR. */mesˈsjones/
OFr. meissons
Fr. moissons
Occ. meissons
semel once —una uiceRomance periphrase, lit. 'one time'. In CL uice meant 'turn, instance'. PR. */una ˈβɪke/
OFr. une feis[upper-roman 12]
Fr. une fois
Occ. una vets
Sp. una vez
Pt. uma vez
sepulta interr.F.SG.PASS.PTCP PR. */seˈpʊlta/
Vgl. sepualta
It. sepoltalitFr. see sépulture ('tomb')		 sepelitaRare CL variant.PR. */sepeˈlita/
OFr. sevelide
Fr. ensevelie+pref
Occ. sebelida
Cat. sebollida
It. seppellita
sindone cloth PR. */sɪnˈdone/
It. sindone		 linciolo[lower-alpha 14] CL synonym. PR. */lɪnˈtʲɔlu/
Fr. linceul
Occ. lençòl
Cat. llençol
Sp. lenzuelo
Pt. lençol
Rms. lenziel
Vgl. linẑòl
It. lenzuolo
singulariter individually —solamenteCompound based on CL sola ('alone') + mente, a Romance adverb-forming suffix derived from CL mente (abl. of mens 'mind'), often found in ablative absolutes such as sollicita mente 'assiduously', lit. 'with an assiduous mind'.PR. */sola ˈmɛnte/
OFr. solement
Fr. seulement
Occ. solament
Cat. solament
OSp. solamiente
Pt. somente
It. solamente
si uis if want.2SG —si uolesRegularization of uis, cf. CL conjugations such as uolunt.[23]PR. */si ˈβɔles/
OFr. se vuels
Fr. *si veux
Occ. se vòls
Cat. si vols
Rms. sche vuls
Vgl. se vule
It. se vuoi
Srd. si boles
solutis free.PASS.PTCP.DAT/ABL.PL PR. */soˈlutos/acc
OFr. soluz
'resolved, paid'		 disligatis Past participle of disligare, a compound based on CL dis-, a negating prefix, + ligare 'tie'. PR. */dɪslɪˈɡatos/
OFr. desliez
Fr. déliés
OSp. deslegados
OPt. deslegados
PR. */dɪslɪˈɡati/
It. sligati
Ro. dezlegați
sortileus[lower-alpha 15] fortune-teller — sorcerus Rendering of *sortiarius, a postclassical compound based on CL sors, sortis 'fortune' + -arius, a suffix denoting occupation. PR. */sorˈtʲarʲu/acc
Fr. sorcier
spatula palm-frond Pr. */sˈpatʊla/
OFr. espalle
Fr. épaule ('shoulder'), spatule ('spoonbill')
Oc. espatla
Ct. espattla
Sp. espalda
Pt. espalda
Vnz. spała
It. spalla
Sic. spaḍḍa		 rama palmarum Periphrase, lit. 'palm-tree branch'. Rama reflects a collective form[24] based on CL ramus 'branch'. PR. */ˈrama/
OFr. raime
Fr. rame[upper-roman 13]
Occ. rama
Cat. rama
Sp. rama
'branch'
PR. */ˈpalmas/
OFr. palmes
Fr. paumes
Occ. palmas
Cat. palmes
Sp. palmas
Pt. palmas
It. palme
Srd. parmas
Ro. palme
stercora excrement PR. */sˈtɛrku/
OSp. estierco
Pt. esterco
It. sterco
Ro. șterc		femus[lower-alpha 16]CL synonym.PR. */ˈfɛmʊs/
OFr. fiens

Fr. fientes
Occ. fens
Cat. fem
Ara. fiemo

PR. */sˈtɛrkore/
Sp. estiércol
submersi drown.PASS.PTCP.PL PR. */sʊmˈmɛrsi/
It. sommersi

Fr. submergé

 necatiCL for 'murdered'.See necetur.
subtilissima very.thin.F PR. */sʊpˈtile/
OFr. sotil
OOcc. sotil
OCat. sotil
It. sottile

Fr. subtile
Srd. suttile
Ro. subțire

 perpittitaCompound based on CL per-, an intensifying prefix, + pittita 'small', a postclassical word of obscure origin.PR. */pɪtˈtita/
Fr. petite
Cat. petita
Occ. petita
succendunt ignite.3PL —sprenduntRendering of *exprendunt, a postclassical compound based on CL ex- + prehendere 'seize'.PR. */sˈprɛndʊnt/
Fr. éprennent
sudario priest's_gown.DAT/ABL PR. */sudaˈrʲɔlu/dim
Vgl. sedarul
'handkerchief'		 fanonem Compound based on Frankish *fano 'cloth' + -o, -onis, originally a noun-forming suffix but now serving merely as an extender. Fr. fanon
'papal gown'
sulcis ridges.DAT/ABL PR. */ˈsʊlki/nom
It. solchi
Nap. surchi		 rige Gaulish *rica. OFr. reies
Fr. raies
Occ. regas
PR. */ˈsʊlkos/acc
Cat. solcs
Sp. surcos
Pt. sucos
Srd. surcos
sus pig PR. */ˈsue/
Srd. sue		porcusCL synonym.See entry for aper.
talpas moles.ACC PR. */ˈtalpas/
Fr. taupes
Occ. talpas
Cat. talpsmasc
Sp. toposmasc
Glc. toupas
It. talpe
Srd. tarpas		 muli Borrowing of Frankish *mul. Fr. mulotdim
'field mouse'
tectum roof PR. */ˈtektu/
OFr. teit
Fr. toit
Gsc. teit
Occ. tech
Sp. techo
Glc. teito
Pt. teto
Pie. tèit
Lmb. tecc
Rms. tetg
Vgl. tiat
It. tetto		 solarium CL for 'roof-terrace'. PR. */solˈarʲu/
Fr. solier
Gsc. solèr
'loft'
tedet[lower-alpha 17] annoy.3SG —anogetRendering of *inodiat, a postclassical verb based on CL odium 'hate'. Note that the intervocalic ⟨g⟩ represents /j/.[25]PR. */ɪˈnɔjat/
Fr. ennuie
Occ. enoja
Cat. enutja
Sp. enoja
Pt. enoja
It. uggia-pref
tedio monotony.DAT/ABL —tepiditasCompound based on CL tepid- (obl. stem of tepidus 'lukewarm') + -itas, a suffix denoting quality.PR. */ˈtɛpɪdu/
OFr. tieve
Fr. tiède
Lim. tedde
Occ. tèbe
Cat. tebi
Sp. tibio
Pt. tíbio
It. tiepido
Srd. tépiu
'lukewarm'
tereo[lower-alpha 18] thresh.1SG — tribulo Verb based on CL tribulum 'threshing-board', ultimately a derivative of tero. PR. */ˈtriblo/
OFr. trible, triule
Cat. trillo
Sp. trillo
Pt. trilho
It. tribbio
Srd. triulo
teristrum[lower-alpha 19] garment —cufiaFrankish *kuffja.OFr. cofie
Fr. coiffe
Gsc. còho
Occ. còfa
Pt. coifa
uittaCL for 'headband'.PR. */ˈβɪtta/
OFr. vete
Cat. veta
Sp. beta
Pt. fita
It. vetta
Ro. bată
torax[lower-alpha 20] cuirass —bruniaFrankish *brunnia.OFr. bronie
Fr. broigne
OOcc. bronha
trabem beam.ACC See entry for mastus. trastrum[lower-alpha 21] CL for 'crossbeam'. OFr. tref < trabem could mean 'tent' as well, so this gloss serves to clarify the intended meaning. PR. */ˈtrastu/
OFr. traste
'crossbeam'
Sp. trasto
Pt. traste
'junk'
transferent carry_across.3PL.FUT Fr. transférer transportent CL synonym. PR. */trasˈpɔrtant/
OFr. tresportent
OIt. traportano
transgredere pass_by.IMP.SG —ultra alareUltra is CL for 'beyond'. Alare is a Latinized spelling of OFr. aler 'go'.[26]OFr. oltre aler
transmeare swim_across.INF — transnotare Notare is an alteration of CL natare 'swim' via vowel dissimilation. PR. */trasnoˈtare/
OFr. *tresnoder
OIt. tranotare
PR. */noˈtare/-pref
OFr. noder
Rms. nodar
Vgl. notur
OIt. notare[upper-roman 14]
Rm înotare+pref
tugurium hut —cauanaOf obscure origin.PR. */kaˈpanna/
OFr. chavane
Occ. cabana
Cat. cabanya
Ara. capanna

Fr. cabane
Sp. cabaña
Pt. cabana
It. capanna

turibulum[lower-alpha 22] incense burner — incensarium LL incens- (obl. stem of incensum 'incense') + -arium 'place for keeping'. PR. */ɪnkenˈsarʲu/
OFr. encensier
'incense burner'
Fr. encensier
'rosemary'
thurmas[lower-alpha 23] crowds.ACC PR. */ˈtʊrmas/
It. torme
Frl. torme
Ro. turme
Srd. trumas		 fulcos A borrowing of Frankish *folc 'people'. OFr. fols
Fr. foulesfem
OOcc. folcs
Gsc. hurasfem
Occ. fulasfem
Glc. foulasfem
tutamenta defenses — defendementa Compound based on CL defendere 'protect' + -mentum, a noun-forming suffix. OFr. defendemenz
uecors senseless — esdarnatus Past participle of *esdarnare, a verb based on es- (later form of CL ex-)+ Frankish *darn 'bewildered'.[28] Fr. dial. darne
'stumbling, impulsive'
ueru roasting-spit PR. */βerˈrʊklu/dim[upper-roman 15]
OFr. veroil
Fr. verrou[upper-roman 16]
Prv. ferrolh
Occ. varrolh
Cat. forrolh
Sp. cerrojo
Pt. ferrolho[upper-roman 17]
It. verrocchio		 spidus Frankish *spit. OFr. espeiznom
OFr. espeitacc
Fr. époi
Sp. espeto
Pt. espeto
uespertiliones bats PR. */βesperˈtɛllu/dim
Ast. esperteyu
OIt. vipistrello
It. pipistrello		 calues sorices[lower-alpha 24] An expression based on CL caluas 'bald' + sorices 'shrewmice'. PR. */ˈkalβas soˈrikes/
Fr. chauves-souris
uestis garment PR. */βestɪˈmɛntu/
Fr. vêtement
Rms. büschmaint
Vgl. vestemiant
Ro. veșmânt		 rauba Frankish *rauba 'spoils of war, garments' Fr. robe
Occ. rauba
Cat. roba
Sp. ropa
Pt. roupa
It. roba
uim power.ACC — fortiam Reinterpretation of CL fortia 'strong' as a feminine noun. PR. */ˈfɔrtʲa/
Fr. force
Occ. força
Cat. força
Sp. fuerza
Pt. força
Rms. forza
It. forza
uiscera guts Fr. viscères intralia Analogous to CL interanea, both ultimately compounds based on Archaic Latin *inter- 'inside' + -anea or -alia, both adjective-forming suffixes. PR. */ɪnˈtralʲas/
Fr. entrailles
Occ. entralhas
PR. */ɪnˈtranʲas/
OFr. entragnes
Cat. entranyes
Sp. entrañas
Pt. entranhas
ungues fingernails —ungulasCL diminutive of ungues.PR. */ˈʊnɡlas/
Fr. ongles
Occ. onglas
Cat. ungles
Sp. uñas
Pt. unhas
Rms. unglas
Vgl. jongle
It. unghie
Ro. unghii
Srd. ungras
uorax devouring Fr. vorace ('voracious') manducans CL for 'chewing'. Manducare went on to become the standard word for 'eat' in many Romance languages. PR. */mandʊˈkando/ger
Fr. mangeant
Occ. manjant
Cat. menjant
Rms. mangiond
OIt. manicando
Ro. mâncând
Srd. mandicande
urguet urge_forward.3SG — adastat Frankish *haist 'haste'. OOcc. adasta[29]
usuris loan_interest.DAT/ABL.PL Fr. usurier (adj. 'related to loan interests') lucrisCL for 'profits, wealth'.PR. */ˈlʊkri/nom
ARo. lucri
'objects'
PR. */ˈlʊkros/acc
OFr. loirs
'revenues, assets'

Fr. lucre (hunger for wealth)
Sp. logros
Pt. logros
'achievements'

utere use.IMP.SG —usitareCL freq. of utere.PR. */ˈusa/
Fr. use
Occ. usa
Cat. usa
Sp. usa
Pt. usa
It. usa
utres wineskins PR. */ˈʊtres/
Sp. odres
Pt. odres
It. otri
ARo. utri		 folli CL folles 'leather bags, bellows'. PR. */ˈfɔlles/
OFr. fols
Fr. fous
Occ. fòls
Cat. folls
'madmen, fools'
Sp. fuelles
Pt. foles
OIt. folli
Ro. foale
Srd. foddes
'bellows'
uuas grapes.ACC PR. */ˈuβas/
Sp. uvas
Pt. uvas
Rms. ieuvas
It. uve
Vgl. joive
ARo. aue		racemosCL for 'clusters, bunches' often in reference to grapes.PR. */raˈkimos/
Fr. raisins
Occ. rasim
Cat. raïms
'grapes'
Sp. racimos
Pt. racimos
'clusters'
PR. */raˈkimʊli/dim
It. racimoli
'clusters'

See also

Notes
  1. Read: abeo.
  2. Read: abietarii.
  3. Read: absinthio.
  4. Read: aeramen.
  5. Read: siluaticus porcus.
  6. Read: calumniam.
  7. Read: castro.
  8. Read: caementarii.
  9. Read: caementariis.
  10. Read: caesis.
  11. Read: cliuum.
  12. Read: collyridam.
  13. Read: crabrones.
  14. Read: cribro.
  15. Read: minata.
  16. Read: pharetra.
  17. Read: cingulum.
  18. Read: sufflare.
  19. Read: plangitur.
  20. Read: furentur.
  21. Read: habenas.
  22. Read: harundine.
  23. Read: hebetatum.
  24. Read: hyacinthinas.
  1. Read: labrum.
  2. Read: concha.
  3. Read: tegularum.
  4. Read: caldaria.
  5. Read: laeua.
  6. Read: faecis.
  7. Read: praestare.
  8. Read: papula.
  9. Read: uesica.
  10. Read: perhibet.
  11. Read: polenta.
  12. Read: iuncturae geniculorum.
  13. Read: malus clauus.
  14. Read: linteolo.
  15. Read: sortilegus.
  16. Read: fimus.
  17. Read: taedet.
  18. Read: tero.
  19. Read: theristrum.
  20. Read: thorax.
  21. Read: transtrum.
  22. Read: thuribulum.
  23. Read: turmas.
  24. Read: caluas sorices.
  1. Nevertheless, the latter sometimes do survive in other branches of Romance- or even in French itself but with altered meanings.
  2. Clearly borrowed words are not counted as descendants. This excludes, for instance, the Italian words formaggio 'cheese' and pallio 'cloak', which were taken from Old French and Latin respectively.

    List of abbreviations:

    PR. — Proto-Romance
    Pic. — Picard
    Wal. — Walloon
    Fr. — French (central)
    Lim. — Limousin
    Prv. — Provençal
    Gsc. — Gascon
    OOcc. — Old Occitan
    Occ. — Occitan (central)
    OCat. — Old Catalan
    Cat. — Catalan (central)
    Rib. — Ribagorçan
    Ara. — Aragonese (northern)
    OSp. — Old Spanish
    Sp. — Spanish (central)
    Ast. — Asturian
    Glc. — Galician
    OPt. — Old Portuguese
    Pt. — Portuguese (central)
    Lig. — Ligurian
    Pie. — Piedmontese
    Lmb. — Lombard (Milanese)
    Rms. — Romansh
    Lad. — Ladin
    Vnz. — Venetian
    Frl. — Friulan
    Vgl. — Vegliote
    Tsc. — Tuscan
    OIt. — Old Italian
    It. — Italian
    Nap. — Neapolitan
    Sic. — Sicilian
    Srd. — Sardinian (Nuorese)
    Ro. — Romanian
    ARo. — Aromanian
    IRo. — Istro-Romanian
  3. With the additional prefix con-. Note that abs- is simply a variant of ab-.
  4. Conceivably a direct descendant of the original CL participle absconditus.
  5. The [i̯s] ending is of uncertain origin. It may have been taken from *trasjo < Classical Latin transeo 'I cross' (Pope 1934: 362). The resulting *vau̯sjo would then yield vois by regular developments.
  6. Old Spanish had the expected form [βo]. The origin of the later [i̯] is debated. It may either reflect OSp. y 'there' or be the result of contamination from the following pronoun in the phrase vo-yo 'I go' (Lloyd 1987: 355–358).
  7. Compounded with /ˈpɔɾku/ 'pig'.
  8. /s/ is a remnant of the Latin prefix ex- (Dexonline: "schimb").
  9. Initial consonant probably taken from Latin perdix, 'partridge' (Dexonline: "potârniche").
  10. In the Sursilvan dialect, masculine singular -s survives as a predicative ending in adjectives. E.g. il paun ei cars 'the bread is expensive' (Loporcaro 2018: 76–77).
  11. With an early change in suffix from -ia to -ía (Malkiel 1944: 108).
  12. Nasalization possibly by contamination with não (=Lat. non), meaning 'no' (Williams 1962: 108).
  13. Still refers to a measure of land in some dialects (TLFi: "journal").
  14. Alteration of the Latin [sɪnɪstra] by analogy with [dɛkstra] 'right' (Lausberg 1970: §139).
  15. Word-initial /m/ often nasalizes a following vowel in modern Portuguese (Williams 1962: 62).
  16. Nasalization came from an /n/ that was added in Middle French under the influence of CL monstrare (TLFi: "montrer").
  17. The substitution of /p/ for intervocalic /v/ may be a phonoaesthetic change inspired by onomatopoeia for the flapping of a butterfly's wings (TLFi: "papillon").
  18. Was a homophone for 'key' (=Lat. clavem) in Old Occitan (Levy 1923: 78), a problem that was eventually solved by substituting the diminutive [klaβɛ́l] as the term for 'nail'.
  1. A verb based on the noun biastemmia, from Latin blasphemia. The modern form of the verb, bestemmiare, was possibly influenced by bestia 'animal' (Treccani: "bestemmiare").
  2. Towards the thirteen century, the initial vowel of this verb could be either [a] or [ɛ] depending on stress. Consider the following examples:
    Pr. /ˈamat/ 'he loves' > OFr. /ˈai̯məθ/ > /ˈɛmə/
    Pr. /aˈmata/ 'beloved' > OFr. /aˈme:ðə/ > /aˈmeə/
    Subsequently /ɛ/ spread to all conjugations, resulting in modern French /ɛme/ 'beloved' instead of */ame/ (Akire & Rosen 2010: 115).
  3. It did, however, mean 'sword' in Old Franco-Provençal (TLFi: "glaive").
  4. Modern despojaron via substitution of the prefix.
  5. In Modern Italian redine has been reinterpreted as a singular noun (albeit still feminine) with a new analogical plural redini (Treccani: "redine").
  6. A compound based on iecor + -aria, originally an adjective-forming suffix but here serving merely as an extender.
  7. Modern chiodo appears to have been influenced by words like chiudere 'shut'.
  8. Feminine form of the adjective, found spelled as sode. The masculine form *sot is unattested.
  9. Today found only in the expression de sobte.
  10. There is a single attestation of the participle envengud in Old French. The word is otherwise nowhere to be found.
  11. There is a single attestation of the participle envengud in Old French. The word is otherwise nowhere to be found.
  12. The reason for the initial consonant devoicing to /f/ is unclear.
  13. The expected outcome would have been /ʁɛm/. The modern form appears to have taken its initial vowel from the original diminutive rameau, where the /a/ was unstressed and hence did not change to /ɛ/ (TLFi: "rame").
  14. Modern Italian nuotare, with the extension of the /wɔ/ diphthong from rhizotonic conjugations such as nuoto to all other forms of the verb.[27]
  15. Diminutive of ueru. Geminate r taken from ferru(m) 'iron' (Malkiel 1983: 474).
  16. Back-formation from OFr. plural /veˈrus/ < earlier /veˈruʎts/ (TLFi: "verrou"). The expected outcome of the singular /veˈroʎ/ would have been */vɛʁuj/, cf. fenouil < *fenúclu.
  17. Old Portuguese had the expected form /veˈroʎo/, which later acquired an initial /f/ by analogy with ferro 'iron'. (This happened to the Provençal and Catalan cognates as well.) Similarly, Old Spanish had /βeˈroʒo/, which later acquired the initial consonant of cerrar, meaning 'shut' (Malkiel 1983: 474).

References
  1. Engels 1968
  2. Elcock 1960: 311–312
  3. Alkire & Rosen 2010: 319
  4. Quiros 1986: 43
  5. Adams 2008: 333
  6. Pei 1941: 150.
  7. Marchot 1901: 75
  8. Alkire & Rosen: 62–63
  9. TLFi: "viande"
  10. Adams 2007: 611
  11. Rossi 2004: 144
  12. A prominent phenomenon in spoken Latin, as pointed out by Grandgent (1907: §292). Cf. the form criblare.
  13. Levy 1923: 26
  14. Levy 1923: 137
  15. Alkire & Rosen: 176–177
  16. Adams 2007: 315
  17. Posner 1996: 14
  18. Grandgent 1907: 21–22
  19. Elcock 1960: 71
  20. Levy 1923: 45
  21. Levy 1923: 370
  22. Levy 1923: 173
  23. Andersen & Rochet 1979: 267
  24. Jensen 1986: 3
  25. Alkire & Rosen 2010: 320
  26. Alkire & Rosen 2010: 320
  27. Alkire & Rosen 2010: 113
  28. TLFi: "darne"
  29. Levy 1923: 6

Sources
General
  • Adams James Noel. 2007. The regional diversification of Latin. Cambridge University Press.
  • Alkire, Ti & Rosen, Carol. 2010. Romance languages: A historical introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Anderson, James Maxwell & Rochet, Bernard. 1979. Historical Romance Morphology. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International.
  • Diez, Friedrich Christian. 1870. Anciens glossaires romans corrigés et expliqués. Translated by Alfred Bauer. Paris.
  • Elcock, William Dennis. 1960. The Romance languages. London: Faber and Faber.
  • Engels, J. 1968. Les ''Gloses de Reichenau'' réédités. Neophilologus 52. 378–386.
  • Hall, Robert Anderson. 1981. Proto-Romance morphology. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
  • Jensen, Frede. 1972. From Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal. University of North Carolina Press.
  • Jensen, Frede. 1986. The syntax of medieval Occitan. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
  • Jensen, Frede. 1990. Old French and comparative Gallo-Romance syntax. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
  • Lausberg, Heinrich. 1970. Lingüística románica, I: Fonética. Madrid: Gredos.
  • Levy, ELmb. 1923. Petit dictionnaire provençal-français. Heidelberg: Winter.
  • Lloyd, Paul M. 1987. From Latin to Spanish. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
  • Loporcaro, Michele. 2018. Gender from Latin to Romance. Oxford University Press.
  • Malkiel, Yakov. 1944. The etymology of Portuguese iguaria. Language 20. 108–130.
  • Malkiel, Yakov. 1983. From particular to general linguistics: Selected essays 1965–1978. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.
  • Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm. 1911. Romanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg: C. Winter.
  • Marchot, Paul. 1901. Petite phonétique du français prélittéraire: VIe–Xe siècles. Fribourg: B. Veith.
  • Pei, Mario. 1941. The Italian language. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Pope, Mildred K. 1934. From Latin to French, with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman. Manchester University Press.
  • Posner, Rebecca. 1996. The Romance languages. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Quirós, Manuel. 1986. Las glosas de Reichenau. Filología y Lingüística 12. 43–50.
  • Rossi, Mario. 2004. Dictionnaire étymologique et ethnologique des parlers brionnais. Paris: Publibook.
  • Williams, Edwin Bucher. 1962. From Latin to Portuguese. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Online etymological dictionaries
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