Pollution in Door County, Wisconsin

Pollution in Door County, Wisconsin relates to the degree of pollution in the air, water, and land in Door County, Wisconsin. Pollution is defined as the addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a faster rate than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form.[4]

A marine safety technician responds to a reported oil sheen in the ship canal, July 30, 2013. Out of 193 spills of hazardous materials into county waterways from 1971–2015, 84% of them occurred in the Sturgeon Bay area. Most of the spills in the Sturgeon Bay area occurred at ship building and repair businesses.[1] Oil slicks may also come from passing freighters[2] or uncertain sources.[3]

Air
2016 HYSPLIT map

Most air pollution reaching the monitor at Newport State Park comes from outside the county. This map shows how the air travels to the pollution monitor in Newport State Park.[5] Because the monitor is near the shore, only the red lines (which show the lower air currents) meaningfully depict the path of ozone to the monitor. As shown on the map, these lower currents carry polluted air from major urban areas. But further inland, the air from higher up mixes more, so all color lines are significant when tracing the path of air pollution further inland. These higher currents (shown in green and blue) blow in from cleaner, mostly rural areas.[6]

In 1999, Door County had twice as many days with high ozone as Milwaukee due to the currents.[7] The stability of air over the Lake Michigan shore along with the lake breezes may increase the concentration of ozone along the shoreline.[8]

Nitrous oxide concentrations measured by airplane over county waters are not significantly different than those measured closer to the Chicago area.[9]

In 1972, air pollution was estimated for a new highway bypass and bridge for WIS 42/WIS 57. The estimate assumed that by 1994 there would be 10,900 vehicles per day traveling at 60 miles per hour, which would generate 0.68 μg/m3 of hydrocarbons, 0.00505 ppm of carbon monoxide, 0.0011 ppm NOx, 0.00076 ppm oxides of sulfur, and 2.06 μg/m3 of particulates as measured from an area 60 meters (195 feet) downwind of the new highway and bridge on a day with a slight wind. These projected emissions fell within the existing federal air quality standards.[10] In 2020, a traffic counter near the Bay View Bridge recorded an average of 12,500 daily vehicles.[11] Pollution modeling predicts the presence of locally generated air pollution associated with vehicular traffic in the city of Sturgeon Bay.[12]

In 2002, an air pollution monitor in the county reported an average particulate level of 7.5μg/m3, less than reported for Brown and Manitowoc counties, but higher than Vilas County.[13]

Trees growing in urban areas remove pollution from the air.[14] In 2001, tree canopy coverage in developed areas was compiled for 3,109 counties by the US Forest Service. Door County ranked 22nd highest in the state and 1,062nd highest nationally for tree cover in developed areas. 15.1% of the county's developed areas were covered with tree canopies and the county received a Resource Planning Act assessment of "fair" for its urban forest.[15]

In 2022, the Environmental Protection Agency decided that the northern part of the county met its standard for ozone.[16]

Wells, soils, and surface waters

19th century

Water-borne diseases were historically significant in the county. The Belgian migration to the county largely ceased after word of the 1856 cholera epidemic in Door County reached Europe. From 1859 to 1880, more than ten percent of all recorded deaths in the county were caused by dysentery or diarrhea. Death from dysentery or diarrhea was more common in the summer due food and water contamination.[17]

Aquifers

Door County has three types of aquifers. The newest is in a relatively shallow layer of sand and gravel, but tends to not to provide enough water except in the southeastern part of the county. Further down are layers of dolomite bedrock that are recharged by water percolating from the layer of sand and gravel. Past the dolomite is a layer of shale that typically does not contain water, although potentially it is a source of oil. Past the shale is a layer of sandstone that is also host to a bedrock aquifer. Only a few wells tap this deepest and oldest aquifer.[18] Due to the tilt of the layers and erosion, there are areas of the county missing certain layers. A study of three city wells serving Sturgeon Bay found that water from the surface fell anywhere from 13 to 115 feet per day from the surface down to the dolomite aquifer. When the snow melted in the spring, the water coming up from one well changed 9 days later to reflect the character of the new meltwater.[19]

Springs

Groundwater burbles up from the shallow aquifer through the fractured bedrock, forming fracture springs. It also may seep more slowly through the ground, forming seepage springs. Detailed measurements were taken of one fracture and three seepage springs during a 2014–2017 survey.[20] Although the fracture spring had large variations in output, it still had a greater flow rate than the other 409 springs surveyed. It had one of the highest specific conductance measurements (995 µS/cm) among the springs studied, due to the minerals dissolved in the water.[21] A study of wells, springs, and surface waters in six county wetlands took samples from September 2017 to June 2018. Enterococci were found in all of the surface waters and six of the eight springs, but not either of the two wells.[22] An earlier study comparing spring water and well water from five springs and 47 wells in Sevastopol found that spring water was more turbid than well water and more likely to be contaminated by coliform bacteria. Nitrates, chloride, and specific conductance were not significantly different between the springs and wells.[23]

Wells
A 1914 ad for bottled water placed in the Door County Democrat

The combination of shallow soils and fractured bedrock makes well water contamination more likely.[24] At any given time, at least one-third of private wells may contain bacteria, and in situations with quickly flowing underground water, wells may test clean one day but contaminated the next. Some household wells turn brown every spring from nearby manure applications.[24] Bacterial contamination of wells is more likely in the summer due to the larger human population. In wells that are contaminated, bacterial concentrations peak during the following rains in the late summer and early fall.[25]

Nearly all soil types in the county which have received a rating for their overall suitability for septic systems are considered to be "very limited" in their utility for septic systems. Out of 292 different combinations of soil associations and types in the county, 124 soil classifications are assigned a "very limited" rating, 4 are assigned a "somewhat limited" rating, and 164 have not been rated. The four which are "somewhat limited" are uncommon in the county.[26] Additionally, certain soil types are especially prone to leeching contaminants into the groundwater. Out of the 74 different total soil types present in the county, 44 types are known to be more susceptible to leaching contaminants into groundwater than typical soils. Out of the 44 more susceptible types, 22 are more susceptible to leaching when the water table is less than 12 inches from the surface, 10 are more susceptible to leaching when the soil is less than 20 inches above the bedrock, and 14 are regarded to be highly permeable soils. Some of the 44 more susceptible soil types have a combination of these characteristics.[27]

From 1916 to 1926 there were six documented outbreaks of typhoid fever in the county, which were thought to be from contaminated water.[28]

In 1955, the U.S. Public Health Service was concerned about the high incidence of dysentery or "summer diarrhea" among tourists and both seasonal and year-round county residents. Weekly samples were taken during the tourist season from 27 wells belonging to establishments serving the public. 51.9% of the wells tested positive for coliform bacteria on at least once during the study, with 19.8% of all samples taken testing positive.[29]

Chlorinators were installed at eight hotels and restaurants and another study was conducted in 1957, with 62.1% of the original 27 wells (along with two additional wells) testing positive for coliform bacteria at least once, with 12.6% of all samples taken testing positive for coliform bacteria. Only one of the eight chlorinated establishments had negative samples throughout the study. It was concluded that chlorination was ineffective, and the old requirement that wells have 40 feet of casing was replaced with a new 100-foot casing requirement for most places in the county. Samples taken in the years immediately following this study indicated that deeper well casing reduced the risk a well would test positive for coliform bacteria.[29]

From 1961-1964, a total of twenty migrant worker camps had been closed for unsafe drinking water. In 1964, the owners of seven previously-closed camps were permitted to re-open on the condition they immediately provide chlorinated water and also sign contract for new wells. All seven failed to drill new wells for the 1965 season, which saw a total of 36 migrant camps closed that year for unsafe drinking water or other sanitary reasons. Fifteen were permitted to re-open on the condition they provide chlorinated water, but only two of the fifteen fulfilled their obligation. Similar issues at the camps continued until 1969.[29]

In 1968, 44 people on Washington Island were sickened with hepatitis, a food and water-borne disease, and one girl died.[30]

After the Milwaukee Journal published an Insight article about septic system problems in the county in 1971,[31] 28% of tourists surveyed in person and 57% of tourists surveyed by telephone reported having read the article. 13% of tourists surveyed by phone said that if water pollution increased, they would stop visiting the county. But the Chamber of Commerce spokesman and one other resort owner said they thought the publicity was good advertising. 14 out of 15 resort owners surveyed said their business had not declined from the previous year, although six thought the article hurt tourism and two thought their businesses had been negatively affected. A study found that those who thought bad water was the county's main problem were less likely to return, and that the water quality problem was hurting tourism.[32] A large study of wells in the county was carried out in response to the Insight article. It was found that 15.8% of all wells tested positive for coliform bacteria, but for wells with 100 feet or more of casing, only 10.1% tested positive. Following this, new wells in most of the county were required to have 170 feet of casing or more.[29]

The porous and fractured dolomite bedrock was implicated as a factor in a June 2007 epidemic when 239 patrons and 18 employees[33] of the newly opened Log Den restaurant were sickened by a norovirus. Six were hospitalized. The virus was found to have traveled from a septic field 188 m (617 ft) away to the restaurant's well, contaminating their water.[34] From September to December 2007 a study was conducted in which dyes were placed into the septic system. The dyes traveled through the groundwater at about 2 miles per year, and researchers concluded that viral contaminants could travel "many miles in their life times."[35] For transient non-community public wells such as the one supplying the restaurant, state only regulated for contaminants within a 200-foot radius unless flow studies had previously been done. Modeling research supporting this decision predicted that pathogens would be unlikely to travel more than 155 feet per year.[36]

In September 2014, 16 people feel ill from drinking wellwater after rainwater washed manure went down a sinkhole in Jacksonport.[37]

Short-term rentals are thought to contaminate the groundwater whenever more people stay in a house or cottage than the septic system was designed to handle.[38]

Soils and groundwater
A 1919 ad touting the "maximum killing power" of a particular arsenate of lead pesticide. Also in 1919 it was found that arsenic residues remained on produce after washing. The pesticide began to be at least partially replaced by DDT beginning in 1946[39] and was later banned for use on food crops in 1988.[40]
An ad for sprayers placed in the Door County Advocate, 1904

The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources reports 137 leaking underground storage tank sites, 385 spill locations, and 104 other areas involving contamination, such as of soils and groundwater, including 24 cases which polluted one or more neighboring properties and 82 open cases such as cherry orchards left with arsenic and lead-contaminated soils from pesticide use during the 1960s and earlier.[41] Additionally, two landowners voluntarily cooperated with the DNR, limiting their future liability.[42]

As of 1986, 38 pesticide mixing sites were located. 308 nearby wells were tested for lead, which was found in 32% of them. Eight wells exceeded the federal drinking water standard at the time of 50 parts-per-billion. Lead and copper contamination was also detected, which corresponded with the lead arsenate and copper(II) sulfate mixture used in sprays. Contamination was concentrated in three zones on the Green Bay side of the peninsula in the towns of Sevastopol, Egg Harbor, and Liberty Grove, although not all wells in these areas were contaminated, and contamination was also found outside the three zones. The distribution of contaminated wells was affected by the thin soils and the location of fractures in the bedrock. Sometimes a well near a pesticide mixing site was uncontaminated, while a more distant will was contaminated. This was explained by the wells drawing water from different aquifers. This uneven distribution pattern complicated efforts to determine the sources of pollution and the extent of the problem.[43] The degree of lead contamination detected in a well varies over time, with some relationship to recent precipitation.[44]

At the peak of fruit production in the 1940s–1950s there were about 12,000 acres of orchards,[45] about 3.9% of the 482 square miles of land in the county. Mines, prior landfills, and former orchard sites are considered impaired lands and specially marked on an electronic county map.[46] A different electronic map shows the locations of private wells polluted with lead, arsenic, copper, and other contaminants down to the section level.[47] A 2020 study sampling 237 private wells found one with a concentration higher than the federal standard. Certain areas appeared to have higher concentrations of arsenic than others.[48]

Creeks and Ahnapee River

A 2017 study looking at the impacts of nutrient pollution on microbes used DNA analysis to detect human pathogens in May Creek, Keyes Creek, and Sugar Creek during the months of May, September, and October. Aeromonas sobria was detected in May, September, and October, while Pseudomonas alcaligenes was only detected in September. Both species of bacteria are chemoheterotrophs which feed on organic material in the water.[49]

In 2016–2017, water was tested for pharmaceutical chemicals, with samples coming from May Creek, Keyes Creek, and Sugar Creek, and also from the Ahnapee River at the intersection with County Trunk H.[50] The tests found caffeine and acetaminophen in the Ahnapee River, and also the psychiatric drugs fluoxetine and carbamazepine and the antimicrobial triclocarban. Caffeine and carbamazepine were both found in May Creek. Caffeine was found in Keyes Creek and carbamazepine was found in Sugar Creek.[51]

In Green Bay
Further information: Fox River (Green Bay tributary) § Environmental issues

A counterclockwise circulation of water along the surface of Green Bay is thought to carry cleaner water south along the western shore of the bay, and nutrient-rich water from the Fox River north along the eastern shore of the bay. The circulation is thought to begin south of the mouth of the Oconto River on the west side. It changes direction at Pensaukee,[52] north of Long Tail Point and continues northward to Sturgeon Bay. The position of Long Tail Point marks the east-west division between the two masses of water.[53]

Turbidity

It appears that turbidity in Green Bay is higher than in the past, and that at least some of it is due to human impacts. The passage of large ships causes turbulence in the water to an extent comparable to dredging. Additionally, carp in the bay are known to uproot vegetation which could otherwise filter sediments suspended in the water.[54] When storms stir up water in the bay, microorganisms feed more rapidly on the nutrients. This temporarily depletes oxygen levels.[55]

A 1985 study looking at Rowleys Bay, North Bay, and Moonlight Bay found that turbidity directly influenced the productivity of aquatic plants. In areas with the greatest turbidity, the total biomass was considerably lower. Carp were the main source of turbidity in waters near the shore.[56]

Cormorant chicks with deformed beaks on Spider Island, 1988. Some chicks had beaks which beaks curved over each other, and others had upper and lower beaks that were different sizes from each other. The deformities are thought to be from PCBs bioaccumulating in the cormorants.[57]

Bioaccumulation

PCBs from Green Bay have been deposited into the county as windborne dust[58] and off of contaminated waters.[59] The state lists 6.85 miles of the Ahnapee River in Door County as an impaired waterway due to PCB pollution, a designation extending past the county line.[60]

In 1975, PCBs were found in the eggs of red-breasted and common merganser ducks in the county and were implicated along with DDE and mercury as possible explanations for eggshell thinning.[61]

In 1979, women on Washington Island were tested for PCBs,[62] and concentrations above 5 ppm were found in some of the samples of their breast milk.[63] Data from five of the 28 women studied in 1979 was described in detail as part of another study. The five women had blood serum PCB concentrations ranging from 15.4 ppb to 22.8 ppb, with a mean of 19.54 ppb. Three of the five women ate somewhat more than 8 ounces of fish per week, adding up to an average of 30 pounds annually. The woman with a blood serum concentration of 15.4 ppb did not consume any fish. Two of the five women were breastfeeding, and both of their milkfat PCB concentrations tested at 3.7 ppm.[64]

Walleye found in the Sturgeon Bay and Little Sturgeon area had 87% more PCBs[lower-alpha 1] than walleye from the western side of Green Bay at the mouth of the Oconto River. This fits what is known about the distribution of PCBs which spread from industries in the Fox River Valley.[65]

In 1962, 71,533 pounds of DDT was applied in Door County, which accounted for 17% of the total used in the state as a whole.[66] In 1964 on Little Sister Island only 41% of herring gull eggs hatched. High levels of DDT were found to be the main cause of death among the unhatched chicks.[67] In 1964, DDT use dropped sharply compared to the year before as growers switched to using Sevin (carbaryl) instead.[66] In 1969, Green Bay District Fish Manager Lee Kernan for the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources estimated that if DDT was banned, "it would take Lake Michigan 10 or 15 years to recover" and that "Most human beings in this area are walking around with 12 ppm in their bodies."[68]

Salinification

Between 1996 and 2006, impervious surfaces in the county increased by 0.6 square miles (about 400 acres). In 2006 a total of 1% of all land in the county was paved. Over the same period, 0.8 square miles (about 500 acres) were deforested and 0.6 square miles were lost to agriculture. As development increases water quality is expected to worsen and the risk of flooding is expected to increase.[69] During the 2020 to 2021 winter season, 3,266 tons of salt and 178,000 gallons of brine were applied to state, county, and town roads.[70] Road salt has been credited with fostering the growth of salt tolerant Phragmites australis (giant cane) and Typha angustifolia (narrowleaved cattail) in roadside ditches.[71] Across the Great Lakes region, roadside salt spread within 500 meters of lake has been credited with increasing the salinity of the lakewater.[72]

Waterfowl footprints and dead alewives at Whitefish Dunes State Park in 2006. A 2004, study of 10 county beaches counted by far the most birds and bird droppings at Whitefish Dunes, yet it still had the third smallest mean E. coli concentration.[73]

Beach contamination

32 beaches are routinely monitored for water quality advisories.[74] Before the state beach monitoring program, an outbreak at Nicolet Beach in Peninsula State Park sickened 68 or 69 people in July 2002.[75] A two-year study of selected Door County beaches concluded that neither the abundance of bird droppings nor bird populations reliably predicted E. coli contamination,[lower-alpha 2][76] although rainfall was associated with elevated E. coli levels in six out of eight beaches studied.[77] After a rain, E. coli counts may increase up to three times the normal amount and persist at a higher concentration for up to 12 hours. This could be due to increased stormwater drainage, including possible agricultural waste runoff.[78] From 2011–2015, a beach improvement program worked to reduce runoff.[79]

Mats of Cladophora algae provide homes for Salmonella bacteria.[80]

Agricultural nonpoint source pollution

In 2017, farmers spent $2,825,000 on agricultural chemicals,[81] in addition to $5,295,000 on fertilizer, lime, and soil conditioners;[82] as a result agricultural practices are a potential source of nonpoint-source pollution.

Social responses

Jim Cook, an Egg Harbor business owner, predicted in 1984 that pollution would determine the eventual carrying capacity of Door County, but the carrying capacity could be raised if local governments became strict about controlling new development projects.[83]

A 2008 survey of county residents found that 93% of respondents not skipping the question thought that requiring and managing "Sanitary permits for all private sewage disposal systems constructed within Door County" was of medium or higher importance and 86% thought that the county sanitarian division be "Involved with other environmental health problems associated with the County" was of medium or higher importance.[84]

A 2009 study of Union, Gardener, and Nasewaupee property owners along with property owners in townships from other counties along southern Green Bay found that people owning bayfront properties valued a reduction in nonpoint source pollution more strongly than those owning properties further inland.[85] Another factor motivating opposition to nonpoint source pollution in the county has been a desire to have a suburban rather than agricultural neighborhood environment.[86]

See also

Notes
  1. This figure came from comparing an average concentration of PCBs from the whole body of the fish.
  2. Bird counts at 10 beaches in the summer of 2004 (first year of this study) found that Whitefish Dunes had the most birds, followed by Portage Park, Ellison Bay, Egg Harbor, and Bailey's Harbor. Random grid sampling of avian waste found that the beach at Whitefish Dunes had the greatest number of droppings, followed by Portage Park in second place and Bailey's Harbor in third, with Ellison Bay and Sister Bay tying as the beaches with the fourth most droppings. Meanwhile, the five beaches with the highest average E. coli concentrations were at Sunset Park, Otumba, Ellison Bay, Fish Creek, and Egg Harbor.[73]

References
  1. Door County Hazard Mitigation Plan by the Door County Planning Department, June 28, 2016, Chapter 2: Risk Assessment, p. 43
  2. Beach blackened by oil; Study ship departure link, Door County Advocate, Volume 107, Number 7, April 15, 1968, page 1
  3. Demand action on oil mess, Door County Advocate, Volume 106, Number 23, June 8, 1967, page 1 (photographs: #1 and #2)
  4. "Pollution - Definition from the Encyclopedia Britannica". britannica.com. 28 February 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
  5. Photo of the monitoring station on p. 128 of WI DNR. "Air Monitoring Network Plan 2016 June 2015" (PDF). EPA. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
  6. U.S. EPA. "Wisconsin: Northern Milwaukee/Ozaukee Shoreline Area, Sheboygan County Area, Manitowoc County Area, Door County Area Final Area Designations for the 2015 Ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standards Technical Support Document (TSD)" (PDF). Green Book. Retrieved February 7, 2019.
  7. The Lake breeze–ground-level Ozone Connection in Eastern Wisconsin: a Climatological Perspective by G. Jay Lennartson and Mark D. Schwartz, International Journal of Climatology, Volume 22, 2002, page 1363 (page 18 of the pdf)
  8. Relations between Meteorology and Ozone in the Lake Michigan Breeze by Steven R. Hanna and Joseph C. Chang, Journal of Applied Meteorology 34, March 1995, p. 678 (p. 9 of the pdf)
  9. Nitrogen dry deposition to Lake Superior and Lake Michigan by Theresa A. Foley and Eric A. Betterton, Journal of Great Lakes Research 45, 2019, page 230 (page 8 of the pdf)
  10. Final Environmental Impact Statement Administrative Action for Project F 01-5()/4150-0-00 Sturgeon Bay Bridge & Approaches S.T.H. 42-57, Door County, Wisconsin by Harold L. Fielder, U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, submitted June 20, 1972, approved January 4, 1973, pages 46–47
  11. WisDOT Traffic Counts, Wisconsin Department of Transportation, June 20, 1972
  12. EJSCREEN, Environmental Protection Agency, accessed October 5, 2021
  13. EPH Data Explorer, National Center for Environmental Health, Environmental Health Tracking Branch, Environmental Protection Agency, accessed September 28, 2021
  14. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States by David J. Nowak, Daniel E. Crane, and Jack C. Stevens, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening Volume 4, 2006, page 115 (page 1 of the pdf)
  15. Counties, Urban Forest Data, Northern Research Station, US Forest Service, columns DEVCAN and TDEVELOP
  16. Air Plan Approval; Wisconsin; Redesignation of the Revised Door County (Partial) Area to Attainment of the 2015 Ozone Standard, federalregister.gov, April 29, 2022
  17. Pioneer Cemeteries: Door County Wisconsin by John M. Kahlert, 1981, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin: Meadow Lane Publishers, pages 3–5
  18. Geology and ground water in Door County, Wisconsin, with emphasis on contamination potential in the Silurian dolomite by M.G. Sherrill Section: "Hydrologic Characteristics of Rock Units," 1978, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2047, pp. 11–12
  19. Field Verification of Capture Zones for Municipal Wells at Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin by Kenneth R. Bradbury, Todd W. Rayne, and Maureen A. Muldoon, 2002, Open-File Report 2001-01, p. 3
  20. Wisconsin Springs: Data, see the four points located in the county on the electronic map, Susan Swanson, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey
  21. An inventory of springs in Wisconsin by Susan K. Swanson, Grace E. Graham, and David J. Hart, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey Bulletin 113, 2019, p. 8 (p. 14 of the pdf) and p. 13 (p. 19 of the pdf)
  22. Water-quality indicators of human impacts to the wetlands of Door County, Wisconsin Technical Report by David Hart, Sarah Gatzke, Michael Grimm, and Nicole Van Helden, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey Technical Report 006 2020, January 2021, Table 5: Water-quality indicators in sampled wetland springs, surface waters, and groundwater on pages 28-29, (pages 35-36 of the pdf), discussion on page 30 (page 37 of the pdf)
  23. Hydrogeology and Groundwater Monitoring of Fractured Dolomite in the Upper Door Priority Watershed, Door County, Wisconsin by Bradbury, K.R., Muldoon, M.A., Wisconsin Geological & Natural History Survey # WOFR1992-02, January 1992
  24. Protect the Water You Drink pamphlet, by Debbie Beyer, UW-Extension Basin Education Initiative; Shelby Giguere, and the Door County Soil and Water Conservation Department. See also Groundwater Quality Changes in a Karst Aquifer of Northeastern Wisconsin, USA: Reduction of Brown Water Incidence and Bacterial Contamination Resulting from Implementation of Regional Task Force Recommendations by Kevin Erb, Eric Ronk, Vikram Koundinya, and John Luczaj, published in Resources 2015, 4, 655–672; doi:10.3390/resources4030655
  25. Geology and Ground Water in Door County, Wisconsin, with Emphasis on Contamination Potential in the Silurian Dolomite by M. G. Sherrill, Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2047, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., prepared in cooperation with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1978, page 36 (page 42 of the pdf)
  26. Web Soil Survey, "Area of Interest: Door County, Wisconsin; Soil Reports: Sewage Disposal, including minor soils" Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture, accessed September 29, 2021
  27. Wisconsin Soil Classifications for Nutrient Management Planning - 2019 by the SnapPlus team directed by Laura Ward Good, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2019
  28. Case Studies: The Upper Door County priority watershed project by Jim Bachhuber and William Schuster, Wisconsin Natural Resources, January-February 1986, Volume 10, Number 1, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, page 11
  29. Final Environmental Report, Middle Door County, Wisconsin Wastewater Treatment Facilities, US Environmental Protection Agency, Region V, Chicago, Illinois, February 1983, pages 485–494
  30. Environmental Geologic Aspects of Planning, Constructing, and Regulating Recreational Land Developments by Stephen M. Born and David A. Stephenson, published as an Inland Lake Renewal and Shoreland Management Demonstration Project Report funded by the Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission, January 1974, page 33
  31. Complete text of Journal's 'Poison in Paradise' by Don Oleson, Door County Advocate, Volume 110, Number 9, April 20, 1971, page 7
  32. Appendix H of Groundwater quality, Door County, Wisconsin: an assessment of the institutional and physical constraints on economic development, recreational growth, and ground water quality, edited by Harry Leslie. Report of the Water Resources Management Workshop held May, 1973. Madison: Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, pp. 153–172 (pp. 187–206 of the pdf)
  33. 2007 Annual Report: Door County Public Health Department by Rhonda Kolberg, page 57 (page 58 of the pdf)
  34. Norovirus outbreak caused by a new septic system in a dolomite aquifer, by Mark A. Borchardt, Kenneth R. Bradbury, Elizabeth C. Alexander, Rhonda J Kolberg, S Catherine. P Alexander, John R. Archer, Laurel A Braatz, Brian M. Forest, Jeffrey Alan Green, Susan K. Spencer, published in Ground Water. 2011 Jan-Feb;49(1):85–97. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6584.2010.00686.x.
  35. Plum Bottom Closed Depression Groundwater Trace Final Report by E. Calvin Alexander, Jr., Jeffrey A. Green, and Scott C. Alexander 25 January 2008
  36. Jay Y. Hodgson. (2002). Source Water Assessment Implementation Obstacles: Are Transient Noncommunity Wells Not As Important? Water Resources IMPACT, 4(2), page 18
  37. Residents seek answers after Jacksonport manure spill, December 4, 2014, Door County Advocate
  38. Short-term-rental Eyes on Sevastopol by Debra Fitzgerald, Peninsula Pulse, May 7, 2021
  39. University of Wisconsin tests, Door County Advocate, January 11, 1946, page 13
  40. Historical Use of Lead Arsenate and Survey of Soil Residues in Former Apple Orchards in Virginia by Therese Nowak Schooley, M.S. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic, pages 9-11 (pages 16-18 of the pdf)
  41. Door County Well Monitoring Program - Fall 2019 Summary by the UW Oshkosh Environmental Research and Innovation Center, December 9–10, 2019, p. 35 and RR Sites Map, Wisconsin DNR Remediation and Redevelopment; also see Cleanup Follows Evidence of Gasoline Leak by Craig Sterrett, Door County Pulse, January 5, 2022
  42. Door County Comprehensive and Farmland Preservation Plan 2035: Volume II, Resource Report, Chapter 5: Economic Development p. 89 (p. 31 of the pdf)
  43. The lead balloon, a section of "Groundwater: Door County's 'Built-On' Problem" by Dave Crehore, Wisconsin Natural Resources, May-June 1986, Volume 10, Number 3, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, page 12
  44. Lead concentration variabilities of private water supplies located in Door County, Wisconsin. DNR-044 1988 by Richard C. Stoll, Wisconsin Groundwater Management Practice Monitoring Project No. 44, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, November 1988, pages 5–6 (pages 10–11 of the pdf)
  45. Door County Land and Water Resource Management Plan 2021–2030 by Erin Hanson and Brian Forest, section on "Lead and Arsenic Contaminated Sites", page 112 (page 121 of the pdf)
  46. Web-Map of Door County, Wisconsin ... For All Seasons!, Door County Land Information Office, Accessed September 7th, 2019
  47. Groundwater Quality Viewer, UW-Stevens Point, College of Natural Resources, Groundwater Center
  48. 2020 Door County Well Study Program: Final Report by Carmen Thiel and Gregory Kleinheinz, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh Environmental Research and Innovation Center, December 30, 2020, pages 10–11 of the pdf
  49. Freshwater Sediment Microbial Communities Are Not Resilient to Disturbance From Agricultural Land Runoff by Rachelle E. Beattie, Aditya Bandla, Sanjay Swarup, and Krassimira R. Hristova, Frontiers in Microbioly, Volume 11, October 15, 2020; for the pathogen table see the supplementary material
  50. Anthropogenic Drivers and Ecological Concepts of Antimicrobial Resistance by Rachelle E. Beattie, PhD thesis, Marquette University, August 2020. For the coordinates and site abbreviations, see page 156 (page 172 of the pdf)
  51. Anthropogenic Drivers and Ecological Concepts of Antimicrobial Resistance by Rachelle E. Beattie, PhD thesis, Marquette University, August 2020. Chapter 8.1.6, Table S2-3, Continued and Tables S2-5 and S2-6, pages 159, 165–169 (pages 175, 181–185 of the pdf).
  52. Lower Green Bay: An Evaluation Of Existing And Historical Conditions by Earl Epstein, Marc Bryans, Donald Mezei, and Dale Patterson for the Wisconsin Department Of Natural Resources, EPA-905/9-74-006 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region V Enforcement Division Great Lakes Initiative Contract Program, August 1974, section on "Mixing, Dispersal and Transport of Water in Green Bay", page 61
  53. Lower Green Bay: An Evaluation Of Existing And Historical Conditions by Earl Epstein, Marc Bryans, Donald Mezei, and Dale Patterson for the Wisconsin Department Of Natural Resources, EPA-905/9-74-006 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region V Enforcement Division Great Lakes Initiative Contract Program, August 1974, "Summary" section, page 10
  54. The Green Bay Watershed: Past/Present/Future by Gerard Bertrand, Jean Lang, and John Ross, Technical Report #229, University of Wisconsin Sea Grant College Program January 1976, page 106–107
  55. Seiche- and storm-driven benthic oxygen uptake in a eutrophic freshwater bay determined with aquatic eddy covariance by Dirk Koopmans, Peter Berg, Shelby Brunner, and J. Val Klump, Freshwater Science, Volume 40, Number 2, May 11, 2021
  56. The Distribution and Productivity of the Submerged Aquatic Macrophytes in Three Bays of Lake Michigan, Door County, Wisconsin by Summerfield, Margaret Ruth, Ph.D. thesis, The University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1985, page iv (page 9 of the pdf)
  57. Door to Nature: Bird Beaks by Charlotte Lukes, Peninsula Pulse, December 30, 2020
  58. A Case Study of Atmospheric Dry Deposition by Jim J. Lin, Department of Life Sciences, National Air University, Tapeii, 1998
  59. Sweet, Clyde W.; Murphy, Thomas J.; Bannasch, James H.; Kelsey, Cynthia A.; Hong, John (1993). "Atmospheric Deposition of PCBs into Green Bay". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 19 (1): 109–128. Bibcode:1993JGLR...19..109S. doi:10.1016/S0380-1330(93)71202-2.
  60. Wisconsin Finds 240 More Impaired Waterways by Jackson Parr, Peninsula Pulse – November 22nd, 2017
  61. White, Donald H.; Cromartie, Eugene (1977). "Residues of Environmental Pollutants and Shell Thinning in Merganser Eggs". The Wilson Bulletin. 89 (4): 532–542. JSTOR 4160981.
  62. Washington Island PCB Pilot Study by J. Smith and J. Rankin, 1980, American Journal of Epidemiology Volume 112, Issue 3, presented at the 13th Annual Meeting of the Society for Epidemiologic Research, Minneaplois, MN, June 18-20, 1980, page 449 and Washington Island in PCB study, Door County Advocate, Volume 117, Number 56, October 2, 1979, page 2
  63. Warn of PCB risk in nursing mothers, Stevens Point Journal, December 10, 1979, page 9
  64. P.C.B. Levels in Human Fluids: Sheboygan Case Study by B. Jill Smith, University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute, WIS-SG-83-240, 1984, pages 14–15 (pages 23–24 of the pdf)
  65. Association between PCBs, Liver Lesions, and Biomarker Responses in Adult Walleye (Stizostedium vitreum vitreum) Collected from Green Bay, Wisconsin by Mace G. Barron, Michael Anderson, Doug Beltman, Tracy Podrabsky, William Walsh, Dave Cacela, and Josh Lipton, April 13, 1999, Journal of Great Lakes Research 3, p. 11 (p. 12 of the pdf)
  66. DDT in county orchards Seen as wildlife threat, Door County Advocate Volume 103, Number 44, August 20, 1964, page 1
  67. Keith, J. (1966). Table 2: Reproductive success of Larus argentatus on page 61 of Reproduction in a Population of Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) Contaminated by DDT. Journal of Applied Ecology 3, 57–70. doi:10.2307/2401445
  68. Coho planting to continue Despite pesticide reports, Door County Advocate, Volume 108, Number 4, April 3, 1969, page 6
  69. State of the Bay Report 2013 by Theresa Qualls, H.J. (Bud) Harris, and Victoria Harris; land use data and analysis on page 84 provided by Peter Wolter of Iowa State University for the University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute, The State of the Bay The Condition of the Bay of Green Bay/Lake Michigan 2013, page 84
  70. County of Door 2021 Annual Reports, page 46
  71. Chapter 6. Invasive species and wetland management from the Wetland Restoration Handbook, Wisconsin DNR, pages 70 and 72 (pages 13 and 15 of the pdf)
  72. Salting our freshwater lakes by Hilary A. Dugan, Sarah L. Bartlett, Samantha M. Burke, Jonathan P. Doubek, Flora E. Krivak-Tetley, Nicholas K. Skaff, Jamie C. Summers, Kaitlin J. Farrell, Ian M. McCullough, Ana M. Morales-Williams, Derek C. Roberts, Zutao Ouyang, Facundo Scordo, Paul C. Hanson, and Kathleen C. Weathers, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, April 2017, 201620211; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1620211114
  73. Door County Avian Waste Survey by Colleen McDermott, UW-Oshkosh, co.door.wi.us, pp. 11 and 13, Archived December 7, 2015
  74. Beach Reports, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; counties are located in the dropdown menu and Pilot Program Pitched for Faster Pollution Alerts, Door County Pulse, June 23, 2022
  75. Detection of escherichia coli in northern Lake Michigan waters using QPCR method C by Roland Hernandez Jr, May 2018, M.S. thesis, UW-Oshkosh and Summer Time... and the Living is (Usually) Easy by Pat Miller, Whitefish Bay Association Newsletter, Summer 2003, page 1 (Archived August 10, 2003)
  76. Evaluation of Avian Waste and Bird Counts as Predicators of Escherichia coli Contamination at Door County, Wisconsin Beaches by Gregory T. Kleinheinz, Colleen M. McDermott, and Vinni Chomeau, J. Great Lakes Res. 32:117–123 Internat. Assoc. Great Lakes Res., 2006
  77. Impact of Rainfall on Escherichia Coli Concentrations at Beaches in Door County, Wisconsin, Amanda M. Griesbach, unpublished M.S thesis, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh, 2013
  78. Biological Indicators for Fecal Pollution Detection and Source Tracking: A Review by Enze Li, Faizan Saleem, Thomas A. Edge and Herb E. Schellhorn, Processes, Volume 9, Article 2058, November 17, 2021, page 6 (page 7 of the pdf)
  79. Implementation of BMP's at Beaches to Improve Water Quality, Final Report, Door County Soil & Water Conservation Department, March 29, 2016
  80. Seasonal stability of Cladophora-associated Salmonella in Lake Michigan watersheds by Muruleedhara N. Byappanahalli, Richard Sawdey, Satoshi Ishii, Dawn A. Shivelya, John A. Ferguson, Richard L. Whitman, and Michael J. Sadowsky, Water Research 43(2009), pp. 806–814
  81. USDA NASS Quick Stats database results for chemical expenditures, 1997 through 2017
  82. USDA NASS Quick Stats database results for fertilizer expenditures, 1997 through 2017
  83. "I'm saying you have a limit" by Joe Cook, in Conversations on Door County by Dave Crehore, Wisconsin Natural Resources, May–June 1986, Volume 10, Number 3, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, page 31
  84. Door County Budget Survey – Results Summary, Committee on Finance, page 5
  85. Valuing a Spatially Variable Environmental Resource: Reducing Non-Point Source Pollution in Green Bay, WI by Rebecca Moore, Bill Provencher and Richard C. Bishop, University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Agricultural & Applied Economics, Staff Paper No. 538, May 2009
  86. No trespassing in the Dairy Gateway: boundary work in deliberative cooperation in Wisconsin, USA by Tamara Metze, Working Paper for ECPR Joint Sessions, April 2006, p. 4
  87. Case Summary: Sherwin-Williams Agrees to Clean Up Lead and Arsenic Contaminated Soil and Sediment at the Route 561 Dump Site New Jersey, Environmental Protection Agency, 2017
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