Mount Ganos

Generally, Mount Ganos has a semi-humid climate typical of the Marmara region.[7]^: 480 Because of its altitude, the mountain experiences cooler temperatures and receives more rainfall than the plains below.[7]^: 480 Its average annual temperature is less than 10°C and its average yearly rainfall is more than 1000 mm.[7]^: 480

The mountain's soil is predominantly classified as the xeric moisture regime and the thermic temperature regime.[7]^: 480 These conditions have led to the formation of various soil orders, including alfisols, andisols, entisols, inceptisols, and mollisols.[7]^: 480

To the northeast of Mount Ganos is the Naip Plain, a flat alluvial plain surrounding the Ana Dere river.[7]^: 483 The plain covers some 500 hectares.[7]^: 483 Geologically, this area was once a river estuary, and has now been filled in by river sedimentation.[7]^: 483 In the present day, a lot of irrigated farming is done on the plain.[7]^: 483 Open-pit mining is also done on the plain to produce raw materials for brick factories.[7]^: 483

The mountain's hiking and paragliding routes start near the village of Yeniköy, which is an area largely used for farming and animal husbandry.[7]^: 483–4

Rapid erosion has taken place in one area in the upper Kavak River basin in the 21st century.[7]^: 483 Rills that formed around 2004 developed into gullies by 2011, and the rate of erosion has increased even more since then.[7]^: 483

There are some wetland areas along ponds and streams, mainly in the vicinity of Yeniköy, Yazır and Işıklar.[1]^: 269 These areas have non-calcareous brown forest soil and plants that require high humidity grow here.[1]^: 269 Trees and shrubs like Platanus orientalis, Salix alba, Phillyrea latifolia, and Rubus sanctus grow in areas along bodies of water.[1]^: 269 In the "sunny openings" near the wetlands, herbaceous plants grow, the most common plants that grow are Lamium purpureum (var. maculatum), Ranunculus constantinopolitanus, Rumex crispus, Scirpus sylvaticus, and Alisma aquatica.[1]^: 269 Of these, Scirpus sylvaticus is the most common.[1]^: 269 Other plants that are less common are Arundo donax, Clematis vitalba, Convolvulus arvensis and Lycopus europaeus.[1]^: 269

These wetlands experience pressure from human activities, especially near Yazır.[1]^: 272

Meadows are mainly found on the flat, fertile plains at the foot of the mountain, often in places where former oak forests have been cleared to make space for farmland.[1]^{: 269, 72} These areas tend to have non-calcareous brown soil to the wetlands.[1]^: 269 The Naip plain, which has alluvial soil, is especially rich in species diversity.[1]^: 269 Like other meadow areas, this area faces destruction and conversion into farmland.[1]^: 272 The meadow flora mainly consists of herbaceous species under the families Poaceae and Asteraceae.[1]^: 269 The dominant species is Lolium perenne; other common plants in the meadow biome include Anthemis cretica, Avena sterilis, Bromus ramosus, Cynosurus echinatus and Hordeum murinum (subspecies glaucum).[1]^: 269

Large areas of maquis shrubland exist in coastal areas where the sea makes the climate more temperate.[1]^: 267 Herbaceous flora is less common in this biome, but there is a rich array of flowering plants.[1]^: 269 The predominant tree and shrub species are Cistus parviflorus, Juniperus oxycedrus (subspecies oxycedrus), Paliurus spina-christi, Phillyrea latifolia and Spartium junceum.[1]^: 269 Among the lower-lying plants, the most common is Glaucium flavum; other species include Avena barbata (subspecies barbata), Crupina vulgaris, Hordeum murinum (subspecies leporinum), Hypericum perforatum, and Lolium perenne.[1]^: 269

Many maquis areas are close to areas of human settlement and subject to being tampered with.[1]^{: 269, 72} In these areas, various ruderal species occur, especially herbaceous plants.[1]^: 269 These include Centaurea calcitrapa (var. calcitrapa), Psorolea bituminosa, Scabiosa atropurpurea, Echium angustifolium, Euphorbia falcata, Plantago lagopus, Rumex conglomeratus and Rumex crispus.[1]^: 269

There are also areas of garrigue shrubland on "the inside of the skirts" of Mount Ganos.[1]^: 267 These areas cover more arid and rocky hills, and their plants are adapted to drier environments.[1]^: 267 The plants tend to be low-profile and are often thorny or hairy.[1]^: 267 Morina persica and Digitalis lanata are widespread in these areas; they tend to grow in single-species clusters.[1]^: 267

Natural coniferous forests on Mount Ganos are mostly predominated by Pinus brutia, also known as the Turkish pine.[1]^{: 269, 72} The Turkish pine is a congenial species, not very picky about the type of soil it will grow in, although on Mount Ganos it grows most commonly on the eastern side of the mountain, on slopes facing the sea.[1]^: 269 These areas tend to have bedrock dominated by sandstone, claystone, and siltstone.[1]^: 269 Most of the plant species in the Pinus brutia forests are also found in the maquis shrubland.[1]^: 269 Besides Pinus brutia, the trees Cistus parviflorus, Juniperus oxycedrus (subspecies oxycedrus), Phillyrea latifolia, Spartium junceum, Pistacia terebinthus (subspecies terebinthus), and Quercus petraea (subspecies petraea) grow in this biome.[1]^: 269 The most common herbaceous plant is Hypericum perforatum; others include Centaurea calcitrapa (var. calcitrapa), Hordeum murinum (subspecies glaucum), Lolium perenne, Psorolea bituminosa, and Scabiosa atropurpurea.[1]^: 269 In areas affected by human activity, there are also some ruderal species like Datura stramonium and Malva neglecta; as well as Psorolea bituminosa and Scabiosa atropurpurea, which both are also found throughout this biome.[1]^: 269 In some places, particularly along the coast and in valleys, the Pinus brutia forests are under pressure from human activity.[1]^: 272

Afforestation has resulted in the growth of two new types of pine forest environments.[1]^: 270 These are predominated by Pinus nigra (subspecies pallasiana) and Pinus pinea, respectively.[1]^: 270 Their area is small compared to natural Pinus brutia forests.[1]^: 272

Pinus nigra grows in scattered tree plantations throughout the area, often mixed with other tree types.[1]^: 270 This species is resistant to winter cold and drought and mostly grows in inland areas with brown forest soil.[1]^: 270 Other trees include Carpinus orientalis and Quercus robur (subspecies robur).[1]^: 270 This is often accompanied by maquis vegetation like Pistacia terebinthus (subspecies terebinthus), Cistus parviflorus, Juniperus oxycedrus (subspecies oxycedrus) and Spartium junceum.[1]^: 270 Herbaceous plants are low in both density and species diversity; the prevalent species in this group is Lolium perenne.[1]^: 270

Recent afforestation efforts, particularly in coastal areas with a mild climate, has tended to prefer Pinus pinea.[1]^: 270 These forests are still young, and many of the pine trees are still basically just shrubs.[1]^: 270 They are accompanied by maquis trees such as Juniperus oxycedrus (subspecies oxycedrus), Pistacia terebinthus (subspecies terebinthus) and Cistus parviflorus.[1]^: 270 The relatively light woody plant cover allows a diverse array of herbaceous plants to grow here.[1]^: 270 The most common is Trifolium pretense; others are Anthemis tinctoria, Avena sterilis, Hordeum murinum (subspecies glaucum), Poa trivialis, Scabiosa atropurpurea, and Torilis arvensis.[1]^: 270

Dry and semi-moist broadleaf forests are found especially in upland regions of Mount Ganos.[1]^: 267 Several distinct broadleaf forest ecosystems exist on Mount Ganos, based on the predominant type of tree.[1]^: 270 Oak forests are the most common; they occupy large areas where the climate is temperate, especially on the south side of the mountain.[1]^: 270–2 Hornbeam forests occur in a more limited range on the northern face, as well as damp riverbeds throughout the area.[1]^: 271–3 Linden forests with a diverse mixture of tree species are found in localized patches, particularly on slopes with a mild maritime climate.[1]^: 271–3

To the south, maquis shrubland gives way to extensive oak forests.[1]^: 270 These forests span a range of elevations starting at sea level and continuing up onto the mountain.[1]^: 270 Various oak species populate these forests: Quercus frainetto, Quercus infectoria, Quercus robur (subspecies robur), and Quercus petraea (subspecies petraea).[1]^: 270 Other tree species are also mixed in; some areas contain a mix of broadleaf and coniferous trees, while others are unmixed broadleaf forests.[1]^: 270

In the unmixed broadleaf forest areas, Acer campestre (subspecies campestre), Carpinus orientalis, and Sorbus torminalis (var. torminalis) grow among the predominant oak trees.[1]^: 270 Particularly in coastal areas, maquis tree species are also mixed in: Pistacia terebinthus (subspecies terebinthus), Cistus parviflorus, Juniperus oxycedrus (subspecies oxycedrus), Phillyrea latifolia, and Spartium junceum.[1]^: 270 The unmixed forests tend to have open space between trees, allowing the growth of diverse herbaceous plants in the understory.[1]^: 270 The most common herbaceous plant in these areas is Lolium perenne.[1]^: 270 Other herbaceous species are Agrostis gigantea, Avena barbata (subspecies barbata), Centaurea calcitrapa (var. calcitrapa), Dactylis glomerata, Hypericum perforatum, Muscari comosum, and Psorolea bituminosa.[1]^: 270

The mixed-leaf forests tend to grow in areas with non-calcareous brown forest soil overlying bedrock made of sandstone, claystone, and siltstone.[1]^: 270 Closer to the coast, the temperature tends to be milder; in these areas, the predominant oak trees are accompanied by Olea europaea (var. europaea), Pinus brutia, and Pistacius terebinthus (var. terebinthus).[1]^: 270–1 Further inland, where the temperatures get colder, more species join the mix: Acer campestre (subspecies campestre), Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus, and Platanus orientalis.[1]^: 271 Herbaceous plant growth covers about 60% of the mixed-leaf forests' area and, like the unmixed forests, is dominated by Lolium perenne.[1]^: 271 Other herbaceous species in these areas include Agrostis stolonifera, Anthemis tinctoria (var. tinctoria), Briza maxima, Glaucium flavum, Helianthemum nummularium, Origanum vulgare, Phleum subulatum, Psorolea bituminosa, Rapistrum rugosum, and Scabiosa atropurpurea.[1]^: 271

In some places, the oak forests have been destroyed by human activity, turning them into maquis shrubland.[1]^: 271 In these areas, the typical maquis species are accompanied by ruderal species such as Centaurea calcitrapa (var. calcitrapa), Crepis vesicaria, Plantago lanceolata, Psorolea bituminosa, Euphorbia amygdaloides (var. amygdaloides), Malva sylvestris, Cirsium italicum, Dactylis glomerata (subspecies hispanica), and Hypericum perforatum.[1]^: 271 Because of the low tree cover, there is thick growth of grassy plants, and a high diversity of species.[1]^: 271 The predominant species is Lolium perenne.[1]^: 271

Forests predominated by Carpinus orientalis, the eastern hornbeam, are less common on Mount Ganos than oak forests.[1]^{: 270, 73} Other tree species mixed in include Acer campestre (subspecies campestre), Fraxinus ornus, and Quercus robur (subspecies robur).[1]^: 271 The tree and shrub cover in these hornbeam forests is extensive, which inhibits growth of herbaceous plants below.[1]^: 271 The predominant species of this layer is Torilis arvensis.[1]^: 271 Other species include Anthemis cretica, Cirsium baytopae, Digitalis lanata, Melilotus alba, Onopordum tauricum, and Raphanus rapistrum.[1]^: 271

Locally, there are patches of forest where the main species is Tilia argentea, the silver linden.[1]^: 271 These grow in brown forest soils on bedrock containing a mixture of sandstone, claystone, and siltstone.[1]^: 271 The lindens are mixed in with oak, ash, and hornbeam trees.[1]^: 271 Shrubs include Ligustrum vulgare, Rosa canina, Rubus hirtus, and Smilax excelsa, but their coverage rate is relatively low, allowing herbaceous plants to grow in the understory.[1]^: 271 The dominant herbaceous plant species is Ranunculus constantinopolitanus; other common species include Anthemis cretica, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Centaurea calcitrapa (var. calcitrapa), Cynosurus echinatus, Euphorbia helioscopia, Geraniaum molle, Hypericum bithynicum, Lolium perenne, Poa trivialis, and Trifolium campestre.[1]^: 271 Asperula tenella and Cardamine pratensis are more rarely seen.[1]^: 271