Prairie vole

The prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) is a small vole found in central North America.

Prairie vole
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae
Subfamily: Arvicolinae
Genus: Microtus
Subgenus: Pedomys
Baird, 1857
Species:
M. ochrogaster
Binomial name
Microtus ochrogaster
(Wagner, 1842)
Synonyms

Arvicola austerus LeConte, 1853
Hypudaeus ochrogaster Wagner, 1842
Microtus ludovicianus V. Bailey, 1900[2]

Description

The vole has long, coarse grayish-brown fur on the upper portion of the body and yellowish fur on the lower portion of the body. It has short ears and a short tail, which is somewhat darker on top. Prairie voles rarely live longer than one or two years. Their life expectancy is based on predator presence and natural factors in their area of inheritance.

Taxonomy

The prairie vole's scientific name, Microtus ochrogaster, is derived from Latin; the genus name translates to "small ear", and the specific epithet translates to "yellow belly".

Distribution

They are found in grasslands in the central United States and Canada; ranging from the eastern Rocky Mountains in the west to West Virginia in the east and into the Canadian Prairies to the north.[3]

An isolated relict subspecies was once known from the Western Gulf coastal grasslands in Texas and Louisiana, named the Louisiana vole; it were reportedly abundant in the 1900s, but is now considered extinct, making the prairie vole extirpated from Louisiana.[4][5]

Habitat

The prairie vole resides in dry fields that contain a cover of grasses and weeds; the largest populations are typically found in fallow fields or hay fields.[6] Prairie voles make shallow burrows and runways through surface vegetation. In winter, they tunnel underneath the snow. Their runways are used for many purposes, from predator protection to obtaining food. Prairie voles are easily disturbed. They will not hesitate to use their burrows if they notice predators close by or disturbances that pose a threat. Compared to the meadow vole, prairie voles prefer to inhabit drier areas.

Behavior

Prairie voles are active year-round. In colder weather, they tend to be more active during the day; at other times, they are mainly nocturnal. Prairie voles live in colonies and have been known to exhibit human-like social behavior in groups.[7]

Pair bonding

Prairie voles are noted for pair bonding with their partners.[8] The male prairie vole has continuous contact with its female counterpart, which lasts for all of their lives. If the female prairie vole dies, the male does not look for a new partner. Moreover, this constant relationship is more social than sexual. Related species, such as the meadow voles, do not show this pair bonding behavior.[9] This uniqueness in the prairie vole behavior is related to the oxytocin and vasopressin hormones. The oxytocin receptors of the female prairie vole brain are located more densely in the reward system, and have more receptors than other species, which causes 'addiction' to the social behavior.[10][11][12] In the male prairie vole, the gene for the vasopressin receptor has a longer segment, as opposed to the montane vole, which has a smaller segment.[13] Considerable work is needed to determine the extent to which research results from vole models may apply to bonding animals such as humans and non-bonding animals such as chimpanzees.[14]

Diet and ecology

Prairie voles are primarily herbivorous, feeding on grasses, roots, fruit, seeds and bark and some insects. These voles store food. Predators include coyotes, hawks, owls, foxes and prairie rattlesnakes. They may cause damage to garden plants and small trees.

Reproduction

During mating season, prairie voles take up individual territories and defend them from other voles. They mark their territories with urine and other secretions. They assume a defensive posture towards a competitor or enemy by raising the forefeet, extending the head forward, and chattering of the teeth. Outside the mating seasons, the prairie voles live together.

Like other voles, prairie voles can reproduce at any time of the year, but the main breeding seasons are in the fall and the spring. Unlike other voles, prairie voles are generally monogamous. The prairie vole is a notable animal model for studying monogamous behavior and social bonding because male and female partners form lifelong pair bonds, huddle and groom each other, share nesting and pup-raising responsibilities, and generally show a high level of affiliate behavior. However, they are not sexually faithful, and though pair-bonded females usually show aggression toward unfamiliar males, both sexes will occasionally mate with other voles if the opportunity arises.[15]

The female's gestation period is between 20 and 30 days. Female voles have two to four litters of two to seven young per year in a nest lined with vegetation in a burrow or in a depression on the ground. Litter size varies depending on food availability and the age of the female. The largest number of pregnancies with the highest offspring occur in spring and fall.[6] Vole pups open their eyes at about eight days after birth, and become capable of feeding themselves at about two weeks.

Interactions with humans

Prairie voles are important to the ecosystem. They provide food for predators, but are considered pests by some. Many ways to prevent voles from destroying gardens or other areas are available. Electric repellers and predators (snakes, owls, coyotes, foxes, domestic animals, and hawks) can be used to reduce vole populations. They can also be scared away by plastic ornaments that resemble natural predators.[16]

Though poison is an option to prevent voles, poisoned voles can create a threat to other animals and humans. Voles are prey for other predators. If they are eaten by predators while poisoned, the poison could harm the predator. In addition, when placing poison near vole entrances, other animals may be able to reach it, making it a hazard to them.[3] Moreover, poison left in the field can easily be blown or washed away. In residential areas, the poison itself and poisoned voles can be harmful and/or dangerous to people and domesticated animals. If a licensed pest control company is involved they can mitigate any poisoning concerns through the use of proper exterior bait stations.[17]

Natural reservoir

Prairie voles in Missouri have been found to carry Bloodland Lake virus (BLLV), a hantavirus. Hantaviruses are responsible for disease in humans including Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. No known human cases of Bloodland Lake virus have been reported.[18]

References
  1. Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G. (2008). "Microtus ochrogaster". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2010.
  2. "Microtus ochrogaster". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 21 December 2007.
  3. Van der Linden, Melissa. "Microtus ochrogaster (prairie vole)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  4. Jackson, Donavan J; Cook, Joseph A (2020-02-21). "A precarious future for distinctive peripheral populations of meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus)". Journal of Mammalogy. 101 (1): 36–51. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyz196. ISSN 0022-2372.
  5. "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
  6. Whitaker 2010, pp. 207–9.
  7. Grippo, Angela J.; Carter, C. Sue; Porges, Stephen W. (2007-05-28). "Peptide Shown To Regulate Social Behavior Has Positive Impact On Cardiac Response Following Social Isolation" (Press release). Chicago: American Physiological Society. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13. Retrieved 2012-12-28.
  8. Young, Larry J.; Wang, Zuoxin (2004-10-01). "The neurobiology of pair bonding". Nature Neuroscience. 7 (10): 1048–1054. doi:10.1038/nn1327. ISSN 1097-6256. PMID 15452576. S2CID 894249.
  9. Walum, Hasse; Young, Larry J. (2018-10-09). "The neural mechanisms and circuitry of the pair bond". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 19 (11): 643–654. doi:10.1038/s41583-018-0072-6. ISSN 1471-003X. PMC 6283620. PMID 30301953.
  10. Holmes, Bob (11 February 2022). "Oxytocin's effects aren't just about love". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-021122-1. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  11. Froemke, Robert C.; Young, Larry J. (8 July 2021). "Oxytocin, Neural Plasticity, and Social Behavior". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 44 (1): 359–381. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-102320-102847. ISSN 0147-006X. PMC 8604207. PMID 33823654. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  12. Underwood, Emily (22 October 2020). "Solo stars among the genes". Knowable Magazine. Annual Reviews. doi:10.1146/knowable-102120-1. S2CID 226324181. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  13. Sadino, Julie M.; Donaldson, Zoe R. (15 August 2018). "Prairie Voles as a Model for Understanding the Genetic and Epigenetic Regulation of Attachment Behaviors". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 9 (8): 1939–1950. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00475. PMC 6093782. PMID 29513516.
  14. Grebe, Nicholas M.; Sharma, Annika; Freeman, Sara M.; Palumbo, Michelle C.; Patisaul, Heather B.; Bales, Karen L.; Drea, Christine M. (12 February 2021). "Neural correlates of mating system diversity: oxytocin and vasopressin receptor distributions in monogamous and non-monogamous Eulemur". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 3746. Bibcode:2021NatSR..11.3746G. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-83342-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7881006. PMID 33580133.
  15. Young, LJ; Murphy Young, AZ; Hammock, EA (2005). "Anatomy and neurochemistry of the pair bond". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 493 (1): 51–7. doi:10.1002/cne.20771. PMID 16255009. S2CID 20453654.
  16. Desy, E. A.; Batzli, G. O.; Liu, J. (1990). "Effects of Food and Predation on Behaviour of Prairie Voles: A Field Experiment". Oikos. 58 (2): 159–168. doi:10.2307/3545423. ISSN 0030-1299. JSTOR 3545423.
  17. Desy, Elizabeth A.; Batzli, George O. (1989). "Effects of Food Availability and Predation on Prairie Vole Demography: A Field Experiment". Ecology. 70 (2): 411–421. doi:10.2307/1937546. ISSN 0012-9658. JSTOR 1937546.
  18. Jerrold J. Scharninghausen, Richard M. Pitts, John W. Bickham, Donald S. Davis, James N. Mills. Evidence of Hantavirus Infection in Microtus Ochrogaster in St. Louis County, Missouri.: An article from: Transactions of the Missouri Academy of Science. January 1, 1999. ISBN B00099P6I8

Further reading
  • Natural History of the Prairie Vole (Mammalian Genus Microtus), by E. W. Jameson, Jr., University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History, Volume 1, No. 7, pp. 125–151.
  • Gaines, M. S.; Rose, R. K. (1976). "The population dynamics of Microtus ochrogaster in eastern Kansas". Ecology. 57 (6): 1145–1161. doi:10.2307/1935041. JSTOR 1935041. S2CID 84887557.
  • Rose, R. K., and M. S. Gaines. 1978. The reproductive cycle of Microtus ochrogaster in eastern Kansas. Ecol. Monogr. 48:21–42.
  • Hammock EA, Young LJ (2005). "Microsatellite instability generates diversity in brain and sociobehavioral traits". Science. 308 (5728): 1630–4. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1630H. doi:10.1126/science.1111427. PMID 15947188. S2CID 18899853.
  • Musser, G. G. and M. D. Carleton. 2005. Superfamily Muroidea. pp. 894–1531 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
  • Whitaker, John (2010). Mammals of Indiana. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-22213-8.
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