List of medical textbooks

This is a list of medical textbooks, manuscripts, and reference works.

Pre-modern texts

Ancient Egypt

Plates vi & vii of the Edwin Smith Papyrus at the New York Academy of Medicine

Ramesseum medical papyri (c. 1800 BCE)
Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (c. 1800 BCE)
London Medical Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE)
Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE)
Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1500 BCE) - Earliest mention of the brain; the pulse; the role of the heart in circulating blood, but not complete circulation.[1] It is the world's oldest surgical textbook,[2] containing descriptions of the zygomatic bone, dura mater, cerebrospinal fluid, and nasal cavity.[2]
Brugsch Papyrus (c. 1200 BCE)

Ancient Greece

Hippocratic Corpus (c. 400 BCE to 200 CE) - Contains many important medical treatises including the Hippocratic Oath.[3] Compared with the Egyptian papyri, the Hippocratic writings exhibit an improved understanding of brain structure and function. It correctly attributed the primary control of the body's function to the brain.[2]
Galenic corpus (c. 200 BCE)
De Materia Medica (Dioscorides) (c. 50 CE)
Medical Compendium in Seven Books (c. 600 CE)

Ancient China

Huangdi Neijing (c. 300 BCE) - Most authoritative Chinese source on medical matters for over two millennia.[4] It contributed to the Chinese understanding of anatomy,[5] and it continues to be used as an influential reference work for practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine.[6] The book contains many guidelines and recommendations for the prevention of chronic diseases and micronutrient deficiencies such as beriberi, xerophthalmia, and goitre.[7]
Wushi'er Bingfang (c. 200 BCE)
Shennong Ben Cao Jing (c. 200 CE)
Shanghan Lun (c. 220 CE)
Liu Juanzi Guiyi Fang (C. 499 CE)
Compendium of Materia Medica (c. 1578 CE)

Ancient India

Kashyapa Samhita (6th century BCE)
Sushruta Samhita (c. 300 BCE) - Early description of cataract surgery.[8] The Sushruta Samhita emphasizes the importance of anatomical structure and function,[9] and it contains the earliest written description of the pedicled flaps.[10] It was translated into Arabic during the latter part of the 8th century.[9]
Bower Manuscript (c. 470-550 CE)[11][12][13]
Charaka Samhita (c. 300-500 CE) - One of the fundamental texts of Ayurveda medicine, it was translated into Chinese, Arabic, and Tibetan languages.[14]

Islamic Golden Age

A translated copy of the Canon of Medicine in Latin (1484)

Kitab al-Taṣrif (c. 1000) - Surgical encyclopedia.[15]
Book of Optics (c. 1000) - Exerted great influence on Western science.[16] It was translated into Latin and it was used until the early 17th century.[17] The German physician Hermann von Helmholtz reproduced several theories of visual perception that were found in the first Book of Optics, which he cited and copied from.[18]
The Canon of Medicine (c. 1000) - Described by Sir William Osler as a "medical bible" and "the most famous medical textbook ever written".[19] The Canon of Medicine introduced the concept of a syndrome as an aid to diagnosis, and it laid out an essential framework for a clinical trial.[20] It was translated into Latin by Gerard de Sabloneta and it was used extensively in European medical schools.[20][21] It also became the most authoritative text on anatomy until the 16th century.[22]
Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon (c. 1200): First description of the pulmonary circulation system,[23] and the first description of the presence and function of coronary circulation.[24]

Medieval Europe

Medieval miniature depicting Henri de Mondeville, from an illuminated manuscript of La Chirurgie (14th century)[25]

Compendium Medicinæ ("Compendium of Medicine") (c. 1230-1250)[26][27][28]
Thesaurus Pauperum ("Treasury of The Poor") (c. 1270)[29][30]
Rosa Anglica ("The English Rose") (1304-1317)[28][31][32]
La Chirurgie ("Surgery") (1306-1320)[33]
Stockholm, Royal Library, manuscript X. 90 (early fifteenth-century). A significant and compendious collection of Middle English medical recipes, charms, and treatises.

Modern textbooks

Anatomy

Gray's Anatomy
Gray's Anatomy for Students
Netter - Atlas of Human Anatomy[34]
Clinically Oriented Anatomy[35]
Snell's Clinical Anatomy by Regions[36]
Gray's Anatomy (1918)

Neuroanatomy

Snell's Clinical Neuroanatomy[37]
Neuroanatomy - Text and Atlas[38]
Fitzgerald's Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience[39]

Anaesthesiology

Practical Management of Pain
Textbook of Pain - Most comprehensive scientific reference text on pain.[40] The textbook's founding editors were Patrick David Wall and Ronald Melzack, who jointly introduced the gate control theory into the field of pain research.[40]

Cardiology

Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine
Fuster and Hurst's the Heart

Clinical Examination

Talley and O'Connor's Clinical Examination [41]
Macleod's Clinical Examination [42]
Bates' Guide To Physical Examination and History Taking [43]

Dermatology

Rook's Textbook of Dermatology[44]
Fitzpatrick's Dermatology[45]

Embryology

Langman's Medical Embryology[46]
The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology[47]

Emergency Medicine

Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide[48]
Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice[49]

Histology

Netter's Essential Histology
Histology - A Text and Atlas With Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology[50]
Junqueira's Basic Histology, Text and Atlas[51]

Internal Medicine

Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
The Principles and Practice of Medicine
Davidson's Principles and Practice of Medicine
Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment
The Oxford Textbook of Medicine
Cecil Textbook of Medicine
Kumar and Clark's Clinical Medicine

Neurology

Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology

Neuroscience

Principles of Neural Science

Obstetrics and Gynecology

Williams Obstetrics[52]
Williams Gynecology[53]
Berek & Novak's Gynecology[54]
Te Linde's Operative Gynecology[55]
Hacker & Moore's Essentials of Obstetrics and Gynecology[56]

Oncology

Ophthalmology

Ryan's Retina

Paediatrics

Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics

Physiology

Guyton's Textbook of Medical Physiology[57]
Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology[58]
Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems [59]

Surgery

Schwartz's Principles of Surgery
Sabiston Textbook of Surgery - The Biological Basis of Modern Surgical Practice[60]
Bailey & Love's Short Practice of Surgery

Urology

Campbell-Walsh-Wein Urology

National and international publications

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) - Official publication of the American Psychiatric Association
International Classification of Diseases (ICD) - Official publication of the World Health Organization

Handbooks

Oxford Handbook of Clinical Medicine
Step up to medicine
Harrisons Manual of Medicine

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

Reference guides

References

Moore, W. (16 March 2011). "The Edwin Smith papyrus". BMJ. 342 (mar16 3): d1598. doi:10.1136/bmj.d1598. S2CID 71433530.
Elhadi, Ali M.; Kalb, Samuel; Perez-Orribo, Luis; Little, Andrew S.; Spetzler, Robert F.; Preul, Mark C. (2012). "The journey of discovering skull base anatomy in ancient Egypt and the special influence of Alexandria". Neurosurgical Focus. 33 (2): E2. doi:10.3171/2012.6.FOCUS12128. PMID 22853833. S2CID 42376171.
Iniesta, I. (20 April 2011). "Hippocratic Corpus". BMJ. 342 (apr19 2): d688. doi:10.1136/bmj.d688. S2CID 220115185.
"Huangdi and the Neijing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
Loukas, Marios; Ferrauiola, Julie; Shoja, Mohammadali M.; Tubbs, R. Shane; Cohen-Gadol, Aaron A. (2010). "Anatomy in ancient China: The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon of Medicine and Wang Qingren's Correcting the Errors in the Forest of Medicine". Clinical Anatomy. 23 (4): 364–369. doi:10.1002/ca.20979. S2CID 72564028.
Curran, J. (5 April 2008). "The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine". BMJ. 336 (7647): 777.2–777. doi:10.1136/bmj.39527.472303.4E. PMC 2287209.
Hesketh, T.; Zhu, W. X. (12 July 1997). Godlee, Fiona (ed.). "Health in China: Traditional Chinese medicine: one country, two systems". BMJ. London: BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. 315 (7100): 115–117. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7100.115. PMC 2127090. PMID 9240055. S2CID 21239655. Over thousands of years traditional Chinese medicine has developed a theoretical and practical approach to the treatment and prevention of disease. The first documented sources of Chinese medical theory, the Huangdi Nei Jing ("Inner Classic of the Yellow Emperor") was written between 300 BC and 100 BC. It describes the diagnosis and treatment of a huge range of disorders and gives advice about healthy lifestyles, exercise, and diet which conforms remarkably well with current recommendations for the prevention of chronic disease. There is also accurate dietary advice about how to avoid micronutrient deficiency diseases such as beri-beri, xerophthalmia, and goitre.
Roy, P. N.; Mehra, K. S.; Deshpande, P. J. (1 March 1975). "Cataract surgery performed before 800 B.C." British Journal of Ophthalmology. 59 (3): 171. doi:10.1136/bjo.59.3.171. PMC 1017376. PMID 1093567.
Loukas, Marios; Lanteri, Alexis; Ferrauiola, Julie; Tubbs, R. Shane; Maharaja, Goppi; Shoja, Mohammadali Mohajel; Yadav, Abhishek; Rao, Vishnu Chellapilla (2010). "Anatomy in ancient India: a focus on the Susruta Samhita". Journal of Anatomy. 217 (6): 646–650. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01294.x. PMC 3039177. PMID 20887391.
Ang, Gina C. (2005). "History of skin transplantation". Clinics in Dermatology. 23 (4): 320–324. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.07.013. PMID 16023925. The first written description of the pedicle flap is found in the Sushruta Samhita (ca 600 bce)
Callewaert, Winand M. (1983). Bhagavadgītānuvāda: A Study in the Transcultural Translation. New Delhi: Biblia Impex. p. 17. OCLC 11533580.
L. Sander (1987), Origin and date of the Bower Manuscript, a new approach, in: M Yaldiz and W Lobo (eds.): Investigating the Indian Arts, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin, pp. 313–323
A.F. Rudolf Hoernle (1891), Remarks on Birch Bark MS, Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 1891, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, pages 62–64
Menon, I. A.; Haberman, H. F. (16 August 2012). "Dermatological writings of ancient India". Medical History. 13 (4): 387–392. doi:10.1017/S0025727300014824. PMC 1033984. PMID 4899819.
Ganz, Scott D. (2013). "Surgical Complications in Oral Implantology". Implant Dentistry. 22 (2): 110–111. doi:10.1097/ID.0b013e3182886100. One of the pioneers in all fields of surgery, Al-Zahrawi published the first surgical encyclopedia, Kitab Al Tasrif (The Method of Medicine)
Rutka, James T. (2011). "Discovering neurosurgery: new frontiers". Journal of Neurosurgery. 115 (6): 1053–1066. doi:10.3171/2011.9.JNS111038. PMID 22132699. Alhazen's Book of Optics exerted great influence on Western science.
Haglund, Richard F. (2011). "The Properties of Light". In Träger, Frank (ed.). Springer Handbook of Lasers and Optics (2nd (n.d. ed.) ed.). Berlin: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 4. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-19409-2_1. ISBN 978-3-642-19408-5.
Cavanagh, Patrick (2011). "Visual cognition". Vision Research. 51 (13): 1538–1551. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2011.01.015. PMC 3204942. PMID 21329719.
Osler, William (2004). The Evolution Of Modern Medicine. Kessinger Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4191-6153-7.
Koh, G. (9 December 2009). "The Canon of Medicine". BMJ. 339 (dec09 2): b5358. doi:10.1136/bmj.b5358. S2CID 72111006.
Shoja, Mohammadali M.; Tubbs, R. Shane (2007). "The history of anatomy in Persia". Journal of Anatomy. 210 (4): 359–378. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00711.x. PMC 2100290. PMID 17428200.
Barisoni, Laura (2012). "Diagnostic Pathology: Kidney Diseases". Kidney International. 81 (8): 715–717. doi:10.1038/ki.2012.4.
West, John (2008). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–1880. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469. PMID 18845773.
Michelakis, E. D. (19 June 2014). "Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow". Circulation Research. 115 (1): 109–114. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.301132. PMID 24951761.
"Miniature: Henri de Mondeville - Chirurgie de maitre Henri de Mondeville, chirurgien de Philippe le Bel, roi de France, composée de 1306 à 1320; traduction française... par E. Nicaise". Banque d'images et de portraits - Bibliothèques d'Université de Paris (in French). University of Paris. 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
Getz, Faye Marie, ed. (1991). Healing and Society in Medieval England: A Middle English Translation of the Pharmaceutical Writings of Gilbertus Anglicus. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. XV–LXXIV. ISBN 9780299129330. OCLC 815753978. S2CID 72220292.
Getz, Faye Marie (1992). "The Pharmaceutical Writings of Gilbertus Anglicus". Pharmacy in History. American Institute of the History of Pharmacy. 34 (1): 17–25. JSTOR 41111419. PMID 11612636. S2CID 19595092.
Pearn, John (April 2013). Gardner-Thorpe, Christopher (ed.). "Two medieval doctors: Gilbertus Anglicus (c1180–c1250) and John of Gaddesden (1280–1361)". Journal of Medical Biography. SAGE Publications on behalf of the Royal Society of Medicine. 21 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1258/jmb.2011.011024. eISSN 1758-1087. ISSN 0967-7720. LCCN 96656201. OCLC 488592086. PMID 23610221. S2CID 8606137.
Thorndike, Lynn (1923). A History of Magic and Experimental Science during the First Thirteen Centuries of Our Era. Vol. 1. New York City: Macmillan Publishing Company. pp. 490–498 – via Internet Archive.
Ambrose, Charles T. (May 2013). Gardner-Thorpe, Christopher (ed.). "Medicus Petrus Hispanus (cl205-77 Peter of Spain): a XIII century Pope and Author of a Medieval Sex Guide". Journal of Medical Biography. SAGE Publications on behalf of the Royal Society of Medicine. 21 (2): 85–94. doi:10.1258/jmb.2011.011042. eISSN 1758-1087. ISSN 0967-7720. LCCN 96656201. OCLC 488592086. PMID 24585747. S2CID 37962852.
"Rosa Anglica". www.bl.uk. London: British Library. 2021. Archived from the original on 31 May 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
Finney, Byron A. (1904–1905). "The "1516" Edition of Gaddesden's "Rosa Anglica"". Proceedings and Papers (Bibliographical Society of America). Chicago: University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Bibliographical Society of America. 1 (1): 71–74. doi:10.1086/PROCPAPEBIBLSOCIv1n1ms24306261. JSTOR 24306261.
Schmitz-Esser, Romedio (2013). "Embalming and Dissecting the Corpse between East and West: From ar-Razi to Henry de Mondeville". In Classen, Albrecht (ed.). East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World. Fundamentals of Medieval and Early Modern Culture. Vol. 14. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 611–624. doi:10.1515/9783110321517.611. ISBN 9783110328783. ISSN 1864-3396.
Atlas of Human Anatomy (6th ed.). October 1, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4557-0418-7.
Keith L. Moore; Arthur F. Dalley II (2006). Clinically Oriented Anatomy (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781736398.
"Snell's Clinical Anatomy by Regions".
Splittgerber, Ryan (2019). Snell's Clinical Neuroanatomy. ISBN 9781496346759.
Martin, John D. (7 August 2020). Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas, Fifth Edition. ISBN 9781259642487.
Estomih Mtui, MD; Peter Dockery, BSc (30 October 2015). Fitzgerald's Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience. ISBN 9780702058325.
Rathmell, James P.; Hill, Bradley (June 2006). "Wall and Melzack's Textbook of Pain, 5th E-dition". Anesthesia & Analgesia. 102 (6): 1914. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000220485.92210.D3.
"Talley and O'Connor's Clinical Examination - 2-Volume Set - 9th Edition".
"Macleod's Clinical Examination - 14th Edition".
Bickley, Lynn S. (January 2021). "Bates' Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking, 13e".
Barker, Jonathan; Bleiker, Tanya O.; Chalmers, Robert; Griffiths, Christopher E. M.; Creamer, Daniel (29 February 2016). Rook's Textbook of Dermatology. ISBN 9781118441176.
Kang, Sewon (27 April 2018). Fitzpatrick's Dermatology, Ninth Edition, 2-Volume Set (EBOOK). ISBN 9780071837835.
Sadler, T. W. (6 September 2018). Langman's Medical Embryology. ISBN 9781496383921.
Moore, Keith L.; Persaud, T. V. N.; Torchia, Mark G. (2016). The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. ISBN 9780323313476.
Stephan Stapczynski, J.; John Ma, O.; Tintinalli, Judith E.; Yealy, Donald; Cline, David M.; Meckler, Garth D.; Thomas, Stephen H. (18 October 2019). Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9th edition. ISBN 9781260019933.
Walls, Ron; Hockberger, Robert; Gausche-Hill, Marianne; Erickson, Timothy B.; Wilcox, Susan R. (20 May 2022). Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice: 2-Volume Set. ISBN 9780323757898.
Ross, Michael H.; Pawlina, Wojciech (January 2016). "Histology: A Text and Atlas with Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology, 7e".
Mescher, Anthony L. (24 May 2021). Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, Sixteenth Edition. ISBN 978-1-260-46298-2 – via ResearchGate.
Dashe, Jodi S.; Bloom, Steven L.; Spong, Catherine Y.; Hoffman, Barbara L. (June 2018). Williams Obstetrics, 25th Edition. ISBN 9781259644337.
Schaffer, Joseph I.; Hoffman, Barbara L.; Bradshaw, Karen D.; Halvorson, Lisa M.; Corton, Marlene M.; Schorge, John O. (24 April 2020). Williams Gynecology, Fourth Edition. ISBN 9781260456868.
Berek, Deborah L.; Berek, Jonathan S. (April 2019). Berek & Novak's Gynecology. ISBN 9781496380333.
Handa, Victoria Lynn; Le, Linda Van (2019). Te Linde's Operative Gynecology. ISBN 9781496386441.
Neville f. Hacker, MD; Gambone, Joseph C.; Calvin j. Hobel, MD (10 November 2015). Hacker & Moore's Essentials of Obstetrics and Gynecology. ISBN 9781455775583.
"Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology - 14th Edition".
"Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, 26e | AccessMedicine | McGraw Hill Medical".
Sherwood, Lauralee (January 2015). Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems. ISBN 9781305445512.
"Sabiston Textbook of Surgery - 21st Edition".

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[1] Moore, W. (16 March 2011). "The Edwin Smith papyrus". BMJ. 342 (mar16 3): d1598. doi:10.1136/bmj.d1598. S2CID 71433530.

[egyptpapryus-2] Elhadi, Ali M.; Kalb, Samuel; Perez-Orribo, Luis; Little, Andrew S.; Spetzler, Robert F.; Preul, Mark C. (2012). "The journey of discovering skull base anatomy in ancient Egypt and the special influence of Alexandria". Neurosurgical Focus. 33 (2): E2. doi:10.3171/2012.6.FOCUS12128. PMID 22853833. S2CID 42376171.

[3] Iniesta, I. (20 April 2011). "Hippocratic Corpus". BMJ. 342 (apr19 2): d688. doi:10.1136/bmj.d688. S2CID 220115185.

[4] "Huangdi and the Neijing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 July 2014.

[5] Loukas, Marios; Ferrauiola, Julie; Shoja, Mohammadali M.; Tubbs, R. Shane; Cohen-Gadol, Aaron A. (2010). "Anatomy in ancient China: The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon of Medicine and Wang Qingren's Correcting the Errors in the Forest of Medicine". Clinical Anatomy. 23 (4): 364–369. doi:10.1002/ca.20979. S2CID 72564028.

[6] Curran, J. (5 April 2008). "The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine". BMJ. 336 (7647): 777.2–777. doi:10.1136/bmj.39527.472303.4E. PMC 2287209.

[bmj1-7] Hesketh, T.; Zhu, W. X. (12 July 1997). Godlee, Fiona (ed.). "Health in China: Traditional Chinese medicine: one country, two systems". BMJ. London: BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. 315 (7100): 115–117. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7100.115. PMC 2127090. PMID 9240055. S2CID 21239655. Over thousands of years traditional Chinese medicine has developed a theoretical and practical approach to the treatment and prevention of disease. The first documented sources of Chinese medical theory, the Huangdi Nei Jing ("Inner Classic of the Yellow Emperor") was written between 300 BC and 100 BC. It describes the diagnosis and treatment of a huge range of disorders and gives advice about healthy lifestyles, exercise, and diet which conforms remarkably well with current recommendations for the prevention of chronic disease. There is also accurate dietary advice about how to avoid micronutrient deficiency diseases such as beri-beri, xerophthalmia, and goitre.

[8] Roy, P. N.; Mehra, K. S.; Deshpande, P. J. (1 March 1975). "Cataract surgery performed before 800 B.C." British Journal of Ophthalmology. 59 (3): 171. doi:10.1136/bjo.59.3.171. PMC 1017376. PMID 1093567.

[wiley1-9] Loukas, Marios; Lanteri, Alexis; Ferrauiola, Julie; Tubbs, R. Shane; Maharaja, Goppi; Shoja, Mohammadali Mohajel; Yadav, Abhishek; Rao, Vishnu Chellapilla (2010). "Anatomy in ancient India: a focus on the Susruta Samhita". Journal of Anatomy. 217 (6): 646–650. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01294.x. PMC 3039177. PMID 20887391.

[10] Ang, Gina C. (2005). "History of skin transplantation". Clinics in Dermatology. 23 (4): 320–324. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.07.013. PMID 16023925. The first written description of the pedicle flap is found in the Sushruta Samhita (ca 600 bce)

[11] Callewaert, Winand M. (1983). Bhagavadgītānuvāda: A Study in the Transcultural Translation. New Delhi: Biblia Impex. p. 17. OCLC 11533580.

[12] L. Sander (1987), Origin and date of the Bower Manuscript, a new approach, in: M Yaldiz and W Lobo (eds.): Investigating the Indian Arts, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin, pp. 313–323

[13] A.F. Rudolf Hoernle (1891), Remarks on Birch Bark MS, Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 1891, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, pages 62–64

[14] Menon, I. A.; Haberman, H. F. (16 August 2012). "Dermatological writings of ancient India". Medical History. 13 (4): 387–392. doi:10.1017/S0025727300014824. PMC 1033984. PMID 4899819.

[15] Ganz, Scott D. (2013). "Surgical Complications in Oral Implantology". Implant Dentistry. 22 (2): 110–111. doi:10.1097/ID.0b013e3182886100. One of the pioneers in all fields of surgery, Al-Zahrawi published the first surgical encyclopedia, Kitab Al Tasrif (The Method of Medicine)

[16] Rutka, James T. (2011). "Discovering neurosurgery: new frontiers". Journal of Neurosurgery. 115 (6): 1053–1066. doi:10.3171/2011.9.JNS111038. PMID 22132699. Alhazen's Book of Optics exerted great influence on Western science.

[17] Haglund, Richard F. (2011). "The Properties of Light". In Träger, Frank (ed.). Springer Handbook of Lasers and Optics (2nd (n.d. ed.) ed.). Berlin: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 4. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-19409-2_1. ISBN 978-3-642-19408-5.

[18] Cavanagh, Patrick (2011). "Visual cognition". Vision Research. 51 (13): 1538–1551. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2011.01.015. PMC 3204942. PMID 21329719.

[19] Osler, William (2004). The Evolution Of Modern Medicine. Kessinger Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4191-6153-7.

[bmj-20] Koh, G. (9 December 2009). "The Canon of Medicine". BMJ. 339 (dec09 2): b5358. doi:10.1136/bmj.b5358. S2CID 72111006.

[canon-21] Shoja, Mohammadali M.; Tubbs, R. Shane (2007). "The history of anatomy in Persia". Journal of Anatomy. 210 (4): 359–378. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00711.x. PMC 2100290. PMID 17428200.

[22] Barisoni, Laura (2012). "Diagnostic Pathology: Kidney Diseases". Kidney International. 81 (8): 715–717. doi:10.1038/ki.2012.4.

[West-23] West, John (2008). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–1880. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469. PMID 18845773.

[24] Michelakis, E. D. (19 June 2014). "Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow". Circulation Research. 115 (1): 109–114. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.301132. PMID 24951761.

[25] "Miniature: Henri de Mondeville - Chirurgie de maitre Henri de Mondeville, chirurgien de Philippe le Bel, roi de France, composée de 1306 à 1320; traduction française... par E. Nicaise". Banque d'images et de portraits - Bibliothèques d'Université de Paris (in French). University of Paris. 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2021.

[26] Getz, Faye Marie, ed. (1991). Healing and Society in Medieval England: A Middle English Translation of the Pharmaceutical Writings of Gilbertus Anglicus. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. XV–LXXIV. ISBN 9780299129330. OCLC 815753978. S2CID 72220292.

[27] Getz, Faye Marie (1992). "The Pharmaceutical Writings of Gilbertus Anglicus". Pharmacy in History. American Institute of the History of Pharmacy. 34 (1): 17–25. JSTOR 41111419. PMID 11612636. S2CID 19595092.

[JMB-28] Pearn, John (April 2013). Gardner-Thorpe, Christopher (ed.). "Two medieval doctors: Gilbertus Anglicus (c1180–c1250) and John of Gaddesden (1280–1361)". Journal of Medical Biography. SAGE Publications on behalf of the Royal Society of Medicine. 21 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1258/jmb.2011.011024. eISSN 1758-1087. ISSN 0967-7720. LCCN 96656201. OCLC 488592086. PMID 23610221. S2CID 8606137.

[29] Thorndike, Lynn (1923). A History of Magic and Experimental Science during the First Thirteen Centuries of Our Era. Vol. 1. New York City: Macmillan Publishing Company. pp. 490–498 – via Internet Archive.

[30] Ambrose, Charles T. (May 2013). Gardner-Thorpe, Christopher (ed.). "Medicus Petrus Hispanus (cl205-77 Peter of Spain): a XIII century Pope and Author of a Medieval Sex Guide". Journal of Medical Biography. SAGE Publications on behalf of the Royal Society of Medicine. 21 (2): 85–94. doi:10.1258/jmb.2011.011042. eISSN 1758-1087. ISSN 0967-7720. LCCN 96656201. OCLC 488592086. PMID 24585747. S2CID 37962852.

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