Freedom of religion in Europe by country

Belgian law states no individual may be barred from religious ceremonies or from observing religious days of rest, and bars the state from interfering in the appointment of religious clergy or blocking the publication of religious documents. It obligates the state to pay the salaries and pensions of religious clergy that are certified by the official organizations of recognized religions and employed in recognized houses of worship. Unrecognized groups do not receive government subsidies but may worship freely and openly. The law prohibits discrimination based on religious or philosophical (e.g., nonconfessional) orientation. Federal law prohibits public statements inciting religious hatred, including Holocaust denial.[8]

In 2017, Wallonia and Flanders regional governments passed laws, scheduled to take effect in 2019, banning the ritual slaughter of animals without prior stunning, effectively outlawing kosher and halal practices.[8]

In the continuing aftermath of 2016 terrorist attacks, the government extended its stated efforts to curb radical Islam, particularly following the release of a government report stating Wahhabism constituted a threat to the practice of moderate Islam in the country.[8]

The government maintains a ban on Muslim women wearing headscarves in public sector jobs, and full-face veils (niqab) are banned in public.[8]

The constitution requires teaching in public schools to be neutral with respect to religious belief. All public schools offer mandatory religious instruction or, alternatively, “moral” instruction (which is oriented towards citizenship and moral values), although parents in schools in Flanders may have their children opt out of such courses. A constitutional court ruling in 2015 allows francophone community parents to opt out of primary school religion and ethics classes for their children, pursuant to the court's finding those classes not to be “objective, critical, and pluralistic.”[8]

Schools provide teachers for each of the recognized religious groups, as well as for secular humanism, according to the student's preference.[8]

Unia, an anti-discrimination non-profit organization, reported it recorded 365 complaints of online hate speech in 2016 compared with 333 in 2015 (10 percent increase), with anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim hate speech representing the vast majority of cases. Unia reported an increase in anti-Semitic acts and threats from 57 in 2015 to 109 in 2016, the most recent year for which data were available.[8]

Unia reported there were 88 complaints of workplace discrimination based on religion in 2016, the latest year for which data were available, compared with 46 in 2015. Most of these complaints involved reports of discrimination against Muslims, especially against Muslim women for wearing headscarves.[8]

Jewish groups complained that Unia did not take anti-Semitism as seriously as other forms of discrimination. some Jewish leaders said there was a proliferation of online comments posted ostensibly as criticisms of the Israeli government but contained anti-Semitic elements such as rhetoric conflating Jews with Israeli government policy or blaming Jews for Israel's actions.[8]

In September 2017 in Antwerp, a Belgian convert to Islam verbally and physically attacked a Jewish man.[8]

At least 100 young Muslim and Jewish leaders from around Europe came together in Brussels for a “Joint Day of Action against Anti-Semitism and Anti-Muslim Hatred and Discrimination,” organized by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights and EU bodies on May 30. European Muslim and Jewish participants raised concerns about what they characterized as the stark rise of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in European societies, primarily fueled by political campaign rhetoric.[8]

In 2022, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom.[27]

A provision in the state constitution establishes representation quotas in government for the three main ethnoreligious groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks (predominantly Muslim, 51% of the population), Serbs (predominantly Serbian Orthodox Christian, 31% of the population), and Croats (predominantly Catholic, 15% of the population). As a consequence of these quotas, individuals belonging to religious minorities who are not members of the aforementioned ethnic groups cannot hold government office. According to a 2013 government census, 3% of the country's population belongs to minority religions.[28]

In addition to Islam, Catholicism, and Serbian Orthodox Christianity, Judaism is recognized as a "traditional religion" of Bosnia and Herzegovina and is automatically recognized by the government. Other religious groups may register with the government provided that they have at least 300 adult citizen members, subject to approval by the Ministry of Justice.[28]

The state recognizes the Islamic Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina as the sole supreme institutional religious authority for all Muslims, including immigrants and refugees, as well as for Bosniaks and other Muslim nationals living outside the country who accept the Islamic Community's authority. According to the law, no Islamic group may register with the Ministry of Justice or open a mosque without the permission of the Islamic Community. Some unregistered groups practice Islam independently of the Islamic Community. Such groups are predominantly Salafi in theological orientation.[28]

Observers reported government authorities were not enforcing the 2015 decision by the High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council prohibiting employees of judicial institutions from wearing any form of “religious insignia” at work, including headscarves.[28]

According to officials of minority religious groups, local authorities discriminate against them with regard to the use of religious property and issuance of permits for new religious properties. Drvar municipal authorities refused construction permits for a new Catholic church, despite repeated requests from the local Catholic priest, the Banja Luka Catholic Diocese, and representatives from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, which became directly engaged on the issue. Municipal authorities also continued to refuse to return any of the Catholic Church's nationalized properties, according to Church officials in Banja Luka.[28]

According to Catholic, Orthodox, and Jewish minorities, as well as Bosniak Muslims returning to a predominantly ethnic Serbian town, government authorities selectively enforced their rights, especially for refugees returning to their original communities pursuant to the Dayton Peace Agreement. Leaders of religious minority communities, particularly in Canton 10 in the western part of the Federation and several municipalities in eastern Republika Srpska, reported the failure of authorities to provide government services and protections to minorities, including access to health care, pensions, other social benefits, and the transfer of student records between districts. The leaders also said discrimination by local authorities continued when it came to providing police protection and investigating threats of violence, harassment, and vandalism. Because religion and ethnicity often are closely linked, it was difficult to categorize many actions as solely based on religious identity.[28]

NGOs, academics, and government agencies reported the continued association of each of the country's major political parties with the religion practiced by the dominant ethnic group among its membership. The biggest ethnic Bosniak parties continued to align with the Islamic Community, the biggest ethnic Croat parties with the Catholic Church, and the two largest ethnic Serb parties with the Serbian Orthodox Church.[28]

The law affirms the right of every citizen to religious education. The law calls for a representative of each of the officially registered religious communities to be responsible for teaching religious studies in all public and private pre-, primary, and secondary schools and universities. Children from minority religious groups are entitled to religious education only when there are 18 or more students from that religious group in one class. Religious communities select and train their respective religious education teachers. These individuals are employees of the schools where they teach, but they receive accreditation from the religious body governing the curriculum.[28]

Secondary students who do not wish to attend the religion class have the right to opt out if their school offers a class in ethics as an alternative, which many schools do. Parents of primary school students may request their child be exempted from religion class.[28]

According to nongovernmental organizations, provisions of the law regarding the religious education of returnee children remained unimplemented, particularly in segregated school systems, often at the behest of senior government authorities seeking to obstruct the process. Parents of more than 500 Bosniak children, who returned to their prewar homes in several Republika Srpska communities, continued to boycott public schools for a fifth year, choosing instead to send their children to alternative schools organized on the premises of the Islamic Community's administrative building and supported by the Federation Ministry of Education. Academic and NGO representatives reported continued social pressure on students from both majority and minority religious communities to attend instruction in their respective religions.[28]

In October 2016 the Bosniak-dominated Sarajevo Canton Assembly renamed a street and an elementary school after Mustafa Busuladzic, a World War II-era anti-Semite who glorified Hitler. The president of the Jewish Community strongly condemned the act. Proponents claimed Busuladzic was not an anti-Semite despite his public support for the fascist Ustashe Movement.[28]

While the Interreligious Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina as of 2017 had registered nearly 200 incidences of violence against religious officials and sites since 2010, police identified the perpetrators in only 55 cases and courts prosecuted only 23 cases. According to the Interreligious Council, this low rate of prosecution reflects an ignorance about hate crime and a tendency to deflect criticism of religious intolerance.[28]

Incidents of vandalism against the religious sites of all of the three primary religions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as against Jewish religious sites and property belonging to the Interreligious Council.[28]

In 2022, the country scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom.[29]

Teaching Christianity in schools continued after they became a part of municipal jurisdiction in 1866.[53] Students, who were not members of either national church, gained the lawful right to be freed from such teaching with §8 of the Act of Religious Freedom of 1922 (Finnish: Uskonnonvapauslaki, Swedish: Religionsfrihetslagen). The legal guardian of the pupil had to apply for the pupil to be freed.[54] Requirements for teacher competency for the teaching of religion and the corresponding subject for freed students "The history of religions and ethics" (Finnish: Uskontojen historia ja siveysoppi, Swedish: Religionshistoria och etik) have also varied.[55]

Since 2003, world view related teaching is compulsory for all students in basic education (primary and secondary school). Each primary and secondary school municipality must arrange teaching in the religion that the majority of the students in the municipality are members of. Also, for every group of at least three students who belong to some other organized religion, teaching in their own religion must be arranged. For a group of at least three students within the municipality who do not belong to any organized religion, teaching in the subject "ethics"[56] (Finnish: elämänkatsomustieto, Swedish: livsåskådningskunskap), must be arranged. If there are too few students for a teaching group for the student's own religion to be arranged, the student (or as most such students are minors, their parents) can choose between joining the teaching group for the majority religion, requesting ethics education or arranging the teaching from their own religious organization.[57] A teaching group for a minority religion or for ethics can be arranged for several schools together.[55]

Current teacher education in Finland gives primary and secondary school teachers a basic competence to teach the national churches' religion, major world religions and ethics as school subjects. However, it is also noted that a teacher should not have to teach a particular religion if they object to it on the basis of conscience. Any conflicts between students' right to education and teachers' religious freedom should be solved on a case-by-case basis.[55]

In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.[58]

In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom.[72]

The Abkhazian Orthodox Church operates outside the official Eastern Orthodox ecclesiastical hierarchy, as all Eastern Orthodox churches recognise Abkhazia as belonging to the jurisdiction of the Georgian Orthodox church.[78][79] The Georgian Orthodox Church lost effective control over the Sukhumi-Abkhazian eparchy following the 1992-1993 war in Abkhazia, when ethnically Georgian priests had to flee Abkhazia. It maintains its structures in exile, where the current head is Archbishop Daniel.[80] The Abkhazian Orthodox Church came into existence when the ethnically Abkhaz branch of the Sukhumi-Abkhazian Eparchy declared on 15 September 2009 that it no longer considered itself part of the Georgian Orthodox Church and that it was re-establishing the Catholicate of Abkhazia disbanded in 1795.[81]

Jehovah's Witnesses are officially banned, but in the past some communities in some parts of Abkhazia have been able to establish working relationships with local authorities and have thereby been able to hold some meetings.[74]

The Georgian Orthodox Church has experienced interference from the de facto government of South Ossetia, which has banned Orthodox services in several ethnic Georgian villages; however, de facto authorities have allowed them to conduct services there. Jehovah's Witnesses in "South Ossetia" are not officially recognized; however, they are able to assemble freely in Akhalgori.[76]

The Fundamental Law of Hungary, the country's constitution, provides for freedom of conscience and religion, including freedom to choose or change religion or belief, and the freedom to manifest religion or belief through religious acts or ceremonies, or in any other way, in worshipping, practice, and observance. It prohibits religious discrimination as well as speech “aimed at violating the dignity” of any religious community.[6]

The constitution's preamble states that “We recognize the role of Christianity” in preserving the nation and “value the various religious traditions” in the country. The constitution stipulates separation between religious communities and state and the autonomy of religious groups. According to the constitution, the state may, at the request of religious communities, cooperate with them on community goals.[6]

Implementing legislation provides for a dual system of religious communities, consisting of “incorporated churches” with which the state cooperates on community goals as outlined in the constitution, and “organizations engaged in religious activity”. Neither category is limited to Christian organizations. Religious organizations acquire incorporated church status through an application submitted to the Ministry of Human Capacities and, if found eligible, by a subsequent two-thirds vote of parliament. However, despite an official 60 day deadline for the parliamentary decision, as of 2017 the Parliament of Hungary has failed to vote on 14 applications previously approved by the MHC. Eligibility criteria evaluated by the MHC include the length of time that the religious organization has existed, the number of followers within Hungary, and the establishment of formal bylaws and religious practices. A 2014 European Court of Human Rights decision found some of the eligibility criteria to be a violation of the state's obligation to be neutral and impartial with respect to religions, a decision which was echoed by a 2015 decision made by the Constitutional Court of Hungary.[6]

The law lists 27 incorporated churches, including the Catholic Church, a variety of Protestant denominations, a range of Orthodox Christian groups, other Christian denominations such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists, the Salvation Army, several Jewish groups, and the Hungarian Society for Krishna Consciousness, the sole registered Hindu organization. The list also includes Buddhist and Muslim umbrella organizations, each encompassing a few individual groups, bringing the total number on the registered list of incorporated churches to 32. A 2011 law on religion automatically deregistered more than 300 religious groups and organizations which had previously had incorporated church status.[6]

The Hungarian Civil Liberties Union reports that unregistered religious organizations enjoy protection for faith-related services. Unregistered groups are allowed to function and to worship but lack legal status and the rights and privileges granted exclusively to registered religious communities.[6]

Citizens of Hungary are allowed to allocate 1 percent of their taxes to an incorporated church, in addition to 1 percent that can go to any non-governmental organization (including religious organizations). This provision has been ruled unconstitutional due to its preferential treatment for incorporated churches by the Constitutional Court of Hungary, but as of the end of 2017 the government has not made any changes due to this ruling.[6]

In 2017 The Constitutional Court ruled in April that the ban passed in 2016 by the town of Ásotthalom on the wearing of burqas and chadors and on the call to prayer by muezzins was unconstitutional. The court said local authorities could not pass regulations directly affecting a basic right or restricting it.[6]

The government has consistently provided approximately 94 percent of its total financial support to incorporated churches and other religious groups to the Roman Catholic Church, the Hungarian Reformed Church, the Lutheran Church, and the Jewish community, which it considered to be the country's four “historical” religious groups, an unofficial designation the media also used. According to the government, more than 94 percent of citizens who reported a religious affiliation were affiliated with the four historical religious groups.[6]

Some incorporated churches have expressed concern that if they spoke out on issues of public importance, the government would withdraw some of its financial support, which in many cases constituted two thirds or more of the churches’ total funding.[6]

There have been numerous reports of perceived anti-Muslim rhetoric by government officials and politicians, including Prime Minister Viktor Orbán and other prominent members of the ruling Fidesz party. Muslim groups criticized as anti-Muslim the government's statements portraying asylum seekers and migrants, most of whom were Muslim, as dangerous for the future of the country and Europe and unable to integrate into European society.[6]

Prime Minister Orbán has also made several public statements which have been called anti-Semitic by various sources, including Vice-President of the European Commission Frans Timmermans and the Federation of Jewish Communities in Hungary. These statements included a campaign against the Hungarian American and Jewish businessperson George Soros (which Federation of Jewish Communities president Andras Heisler described as "not anti-Semitic...but could lead to anti-Semitic acts" in an open letter condemning the campaign) and calling Miklós Horthy, an ally of Nazi Germany an "exceptional statesman". Orbán has also made statements condemning Hungary's participation in The Holocaust and claiming that the country today has a "zero tolerance policy" toward anti-Semitism, which Heisler welcomed while describing the government's overall attitude as consisting of "two-faced assessments of the Holocaust".[6]

The government is engaged in various legal disputes with the Church of Scientology–government investigations and audits of the Church of Scientology have been criticized by the group as a violation of its religious freedom, and the Church was one of the 300 religious groups that was deregistered in 2011.[6]

Both Muslims and Jews have been targets for assault, discriminatory treatment, hate speech, and vandalism. Muslim organization leaders have asserted that many members of their community do not bother reporting anti-Muslim incidents because they do not believe that the police would address them seriously.[6]

A poll of approximately 1,000 persons conducted by Zavecz Research in April 2017 found 60 percent of respondents considered Muslims to be very dangerous for the future of the country and 22 percent as slightly dangerous. Twenty-seven percent of respondents perceived Jews as very dangerous and 21 percent as slightly dangerous. In its 2016 report on anti-Semitism The Action and Protection Foundation (based on a survey conducted by the Median Opinion and Market Research Institute), it concluded that approximately one third of citizens harbored anti-Semitic views, with around one-fifth of Hungarian citizens agreeing with various forms of Holocaust denial.[6]

On February 6, 2017, approximately 600 members of extreme right organizations, including neo-Nazis and sympathizers of the country's WWII-era, Nazi-collaborationist Arrow Cross Party, rallied in a prominent park in Budapest and other cities around the country for a "Day of Honor" commemoration of the victims of a failed attempt by German and Hungarian troops to break through Soviet lines besieging Budapest in 1945.[6]

The Attila Hotel and Restaurant in Budapest's 3rd District unveiled a bust in tribute to WWII Regent Horthy in its courtyard on June 17. The mayor and village council of Perkáta approved another bust of Horthy in May but, due to protests, revoked their approval; that bust was instead placed in a private castle in Káloz.[6]

In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom.[95]

The constitution of Kosovo provides for freedom of conscience and religion for all residents, including the right to change, express, or not express religious belief; to practice or abstain from practicing religion; and to join or refuse to join a religious community. These rights are subject to limitations for reasons of public safety and order or for the protection of the health or rights of others. The constitution guarantees equal rights for all religious communities, stipulates the country is secular and neutral with regard to religion, declares the state shall ensure the protection and preservation of the country's religious heritage, and prohibits discrimination based on religion.[105]

The constitution stipulates communities traditionally present in the country, including religious communities, shall have specific rights, including maintaining, developing, and preserving their religion; using their own language; establishing and managing their own private schools with financial assistance from the state; and having access to public media.[105]

The constitution provides for the establishment of an ombudsperson's institution, which is responsible for monitoring religious freedom among other human rights and recommending actions to correct violations. It stipulates the state shall take all necessary measures to protect individuals who may be subject to threats, hostility, discrimination, or violence because of their religious identity.[105]

While Kosovo has no official religion, it has five “traditional” religious communities: the Islamic Community of Kosova, the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church, the Jewish community, and the evangelical community. The law provides extra protections and benefits to these five groups, such as reduced taxes and relief from water tariffs.[105]

Due to the strict separation of church and state, religious organizations have reported that they have difficulty conducting business and otherwise engage with the state, including the ability to register property and pay employees. Religious leaders have advocated for the government to grant religious organizations a special legal status that would aid their ability to conduct their operations.[105]

Some school officials continue to apply a mandatory administrative instruction previously issued by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology that prohibits primary and secondary students from wearing religious garb on school property. According to the Islamic Community of Kosova and other Muslim community leaders, public schools occasionally sent home students who insisted on wearing headscarves while attending classes. Members of the Islamic Community reported some public schools forced girls to remove headscarves in order to study in these schools.[105]

Religious groups have complained that government authorities did not take steps to ensure municipalities treated religious organizations equally on property issues, in particular with regard to churches and cemeteries. Although the law specifies that municipalities hold title to cemeteries and are responsible for their upkeep, in practice, some municipalities allowed religious groups to take de facto possession of public cemeteries.[105]

Existing Jewish cemeteries were reportedly in disrepair. Members of the Jewish community said they lacked the resources to maintain their cemeteries and local authorities did not maintain these public sites as required by law. The Serbian Orthodox cemetery in Pristina was reportedly also in disrepair and not maintained by municipal authorities. The Serbian Orthodox Church cited member displacement from the area as a reason for its inability to care adequately for the cemetery. In both cases, the Municipality of Pristina has denied that these cemeteries were in disrepair.[105]

The Pristina Municipality, citing the lack of a construction permit, has prevented Serbian Orthodox monks from cleaning and making light repairs at the unfinished St. Saviors Church after vandals set fire to it in 2016.[105]

Leaders of different religious groups reported generally good relations with one another and participated in numerous interfaith discussions on property rights, legislative priorities, and local community issues. However, incidents of vandalism and violence between ethnoreligious groups (and particularly between Albanian Muslims and Serb Serbian Orthodox Christians) continue to occur.[105]

Both the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Islamic Community have accused the media of portraying their community in a negative light.[105]

The former head imam of the Grand Mosque of Pristina, Shefqet Krasniqi, was charged by the Special Prosecution Office for using his sermons to encourage people to travel to conflict zones such as Iraq and Syria to incite terror. As a consequence of Krasniqi's actions, he was arrested in 2014 and dismissed from his position in 2015, with the Special Prosecution Office filing charges in 2017. Other imams have also been charged with inciting terrorism.[105]

On January 6, 2017 (Orthodox Christmas Eve), approximately a dozen VV activists protested the visit of 50 displaced ethnic Serb pilgrims to the Serbian Orthodox church in Gjakove, alleging war criminals were among the group. Protesters threw stones and red paint at the visitors’ bus, damaging one window, and spray-painted “murderer” on the church's outer wall. Police dispersed protesters and arrested seven for disobeying police orders and vandalism.[105]

On February 14, 2017, a group of 20 ethnic Albanians chanted anti-Serb slogans and sprayed anti-Serb graffiti in an ethnic Serb area of Gjilan, including on the Serbian Orthodox church and a Serbian-language school's outer walls. Graffiti included “Kill Serbs,” a swastika, and “UCK – Kosovo Liberation Army,” which is associated with ethnic Albanian nationalism.[105]

On April 15, 2017, police arrested an ethnic Serb for attacking a mosque in Llabjan village, Novo Brdo. Ethnic Serb leaders condemned the attack.

In 2023, the country was scored 2 out of 4 for religious freedom.[106]

The constitution states everyone has the right to “freedom of thought, conscience, and religion,” and “the church shall be separate from the state.” It allows restrictions on the expression of religious beliefs in order to protect public safety, welfare, morals, the democratic structure of the state, and others’ rights.[107]

The law gives eight “traditional” religious groups – Lutherans, Catholics, Latvian Orthodox Christians, Old Believers, Baptists, Methodists, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jews – some rights and privileges not given to other religious groups, including the right to teach religion courses in public schools and the right to officiate at marriages without obtaining a civil marriage license from the Ministry of Justice. These eight groups are also the only religious groups represented on the government's Ecclesiastical Council, an advisory body established by law and chaired by the prime minister that meets on an ad hoc basis to comment and provide recommendations on religious issues. These recommendations do not carry the force of law.[107]

Although the government does not require religious groups to register, the law accords registered religious groups a number of rights and privileges, including legal status to own property and conduct financial transactions, eligibility to apply for funds for religious building restoration, and tax deductions for donors. The eight traditional groups are considered to be automatically registered; other groups must re-register every year for ten years.[107]

The law criminalizes hate speech and the incitement of hatred on the basis of religious affiliation but requires legal proof of substantial harm for conviction. Penalties range from community service to up to 10 years of imprisonment. Committing a crime for religious reasons may also be considered an aggravating factor at trial.[107]

The law stipulates foreign missionaries may be issued a residency permit, hold meetings, and proselytize only if a registered domestic religious group invites them to conduct such activities.[107]

The government funds religion and ethics classes in public schools. The school must receive the approval of the parents of at least 10 students in order to hold religion classes; if such approval is not obtained, students take courses on general ethics. The Center for Educational Content at the Ministry of Education must review the content of the classes to verify they do not violate freedom of conscience.[107]

Students at state-supported national minority schools may attend classes on a voluntary basis on the religion “characteristic of the national minority.” Other nontraditional religious groups without their own state-supported minority schools may provide religious education only in private schools.[107]

In 2017, President Raimonds Vejonis and other senior government officials, including the prime minister's legal advisor, the president's legal advisors, representatives from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and members of parliament, met with Jewish groups to discuss property restitution. Despite the talks, the government did not take any additional steps to restitute property in accordance with the 2009 Terezin Declaration, which called for measures to provide for assistance, redress, and remembrance for victims of Nazi persecution.[107]

Authorities continued to monitor the activities of the Islamic Cultural Center in Latvia, according to the annual report of the Security Police. ICCL leader Lucins again said he did not view government monitoring of his group to be discrimination or a violation of ICCL members’ rights.[107]

President Vejonis and other senior government officials, including Speaker of the Parliament Inara Murniece, Prime Minister Maris Kucinskis, and Minister of Defense Raimonds Bergmanis, attended or spoke at Holocaust memorial events, including International Holocaust Remembrance Day, Latvian Holocaust Memorial Day, and the Rumbula Forest Massacre Memorial.[107]

Annual marches take place on March 16 to commemorate Latvians who fought in the grenadier divisions of the Waffen SS against the Soviet Red Army in World War II. The event is routinely condemned by various groups from outside of Latvia. In 2017, approximately 250 persons, including 10-15 SS veterans and three members of parliament from the All for Latvia Party, participated. Protesters also attended. The organizers, the Daugava Hawks group, characterized the annual march as a commemoration of national identity and remembrance of those who fought for independence, rather than as a glorification of Nazism. Police arrested five persons protesting against the march.[107]

Jewish community leaders have commented instances of anti-Semitism, particularly on the internet. Anti-Semitic comments included accusations that Jews do not belong in Latvia, that they do not deserve reparations for the Holocaust, or that they themselves participated in orchestrating the Holocaust.[107]

Muslim community leaders also identified instances of online anti-Muslim sentiment, with the anti-Muslim focusing on the theme that Islam is incompatible with Latvian society, and that Muslim individuals represent a detriment to Latvia.[107]

In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.[108]

The constitution stipulates there is no state religion and provides for the right of individuals to choose freely any religion or belief, to profess their religion and perform religious practices, individually or with others, in private or in public, and to practice and teach their beliefs. It states no one may compel another person (or be compelled) to choose or profess any religion or belief. It restricts freedom of expression if it incites religious hatred, violence, or discrimination, and stipulates that religious belief may not serve as justification for failing to comply with laws.[4]

The law recognizes as “traditional” those religious groups able to trace back their presence in the country at least 300 years. The law lists nine “traditional” religious groups: Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, Evangelical Lutheran, Evangelical Reformed, Russian Orthodox, Old Believer, Jewish, Sunni Muslim, and Karaite. Traditional religious groups have a simplified registration procedure and enjoy certain other privileges. Other religious associations may apply to the Ministry of Justice for state recognition if they have been officially registered in the country for at least 25 years. Parliament votes whether to grant this status upon recommendation from the Ministry of Justice. Unregistered communities have no legal status; however, the constitution allows them to conduct worship services and seek new members.[4]

The criminal code prohibits discrimination based on religion and provides penalties of up to two years in prison for violations. The code penalizes interference with religious ceremonies of recognized religious groups with imprisonment or community service and penalizes inciting religious hatred with imprisonment of up to three years.[4]

The law permits and funds religious instruction in public schools for traditional and other state-recognized religious groups. Most religious instructors are regular state-employed teachers, but some are priests, seminarians, or monks. Parents may choose either religious instruction or secular ethics classes for their children. Schools decide which of the traditional religious groups will be represented in their curricula on the basis of requests from parents of children up to age 14, after which students present the requests themselves.[4]

There are 30 private religious schools in the country, which receive government support through a voucher system.[4]

The government operates programs to return properties belonging to religious communities that were expropriated either while Lithuania was part of the Soviet Union or during the Nazi occupation of Lithuania. In addition to the restitution of property, the traditional religious communities are given funding on a yearly basis as compensation for religious property which was destroyed and cannot be returned. 90% of this funding is given to the Roman Catholic Church, with the second largest sum being given to the Russian Orthodox Church. The government has also allocated several hundreds of thousands of euros to the renovation of Jewish synagogues.[4]

In September 2017, Member of Parliament Emanuelis Zingeris said it was time that the country remove monuments to citizens who had written anti-Semitic propaganda or were suspected of having collaborated with the Nazis. Members of the Jewish community stated street names and monuments honoring Kazys Skirpa and Jonas Noreika were their primary concern.[4]

Government officials regularly participate in ceremonies led by Jewish organizations to commemorate The Holocaust.[4]

In January 2017, during a television game show, while a group was singing a song popularized by a Jewish singer, one of the judges, actress and former parliamentarian Asta Baukute stood up, gave a Nazi salute and repeatedly shouted “Jew.” Following protests, the producer and host of the show issued apologies and the station, Lithuanian National Radio and Television, cancelled the show.[4]

NGOs, including Caritas and the Lithuanian Red Cross, reported Muslim refugees faced discrimination in their applications for housing and employment. According to a poll by the Institute for Ethnic Studies, 46 percent of respondents said they would not want Muslims as neighbors, which was the highest negative view expressed about any religious or ethnic group. Respondents also were more opposed to accepting Muslim refugees compared to non-Muslim refugees: 72 percent opposed accepting Muslims from Iraq and Syria, while 55 percent opposed non-Muslims from Iraq and 50 percent opposed Christians from Syria.[4]

Anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim comments on the internet were common. Anti-Semitic examples included justifying the Holocaust because “all Jews collaborated with the Soviet Union” and statements that Jewish greed was destroying the country and that Jews could not be citizens. Anti-Muslim examples included equating Muslims with terrorists, statements that Muslims would kill all Christians in the country, and that it was better to have 100 dead Muslims than one dead innocent person.[4]

Nationalist demonstrations commemorating Lithuania's independence from the Soviet Union have incorporated anti-Semitic messaging, as well as the commemoration of Lithuanians who collaborated with the Nazi regime, who are memorialized as anti-Soviet activists.[4]

In 2023, the country scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.[110]

The constitution guarantees freedom of religion, including the freedom to public religious practice and to manifest religious opinions, as long as no crime is committed in exercising that freedom. While the constitution guarantees the right to assemble peacefully without prior authorization, it stipulates that open-air religious or other meetings are subject to regulation by police.[111]

The government has formally approved conventions with six recognized religious communities, which it supports financially based on the number of adherents of each group. The six recognized communities are: the Catholic Church; the Greek, Russian, Romanian, and Serbian Orthodox Churches as one community; the Anglican Church; the Reformed Protestant Church of Luxembourg and the Protestant Church of Luxembourg as one community; the Jewish community; and the Muslim community. To qualify for a convention with the state, a religious community must be a recognized world religion and establish an official and stable representative body with which the government can interact. Groups without signed conventions, such as the Baháʼí Faith, may operate freely but do not receive state funding.[111]

Legislation has been introduced at various levels of government to ban facial coverings, such as the burqa, in public spaces. As of the end of 2017, such legislation was not being enforced by police officers. According to Assembly of the Muslim Community, only sixteen women in the country of Luxembourg wear burqa or niqāb, and a representative criticized the legislation as therefore unnecessary, and criticized the Justice Minister for not consulting the Muslim community before introducing the legislation.[111]

According to data provided by the prime minister's office, through October t017 he government had granted refugee status to 938 individuals, the majority of whom were Muslim. The Organization for Welcome and Integration (OLAI), an entity of the Ministry of Family and Integration, stated the government sought to be proactive in assuring refugee access to mosques, halal meals, and same-sex housing for those who requested it. OLAI reported no complaints or concerns by refugees related to the practice of their religion.[111]

In September 2017, the Bar Association changed its internal regulations to ban lawyers from wearing headscarves while practicing law. The decision was made the night before the September swearing-in ceremony for new attorneys admitted to the bar, and the following morning, a female candidate was asked to remove her head covering if she wanted to be sworn in. She declined and did not participate in the ceremony.[111]

Leaders of the six recognized religious communities agreed to meet on an ad hoc basis in the Council of Recognized Religious Communities. According to its members, the council did not convene during 2017, as there were no issues that rose to the level requiring their combined attention.[111]

In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.[112]

The constitution stipulates full freedom of conscience and religious worship, subject to restrictions in the interests of public safety, order, morality, or health, or protection of the rights and freedoms of others. It prohibits discriminatory treatment on the basis of creed. The constitution establishes Catholicism as the state religion and declares the Catholic Church has “the duty and the right to teach which principles are right and which are wrong.”[2]

The government does not require religious groups to be registered. Registration is optional, and allows religious groups to more easily collect funds from their congregation and receive grants from the government and the European Union.[2]

The criminal code prohibits individuals from wearing “masks or disguises” in public, unless explicitly allowed by law; there is no specific reference – or exception – to coverings worn for religious reasons. Violations are subject to a reprimand, fine, or jail sentence. This ban is generally not enforced by the government.[2]

The law allows criticism of religious groups but prohibits incitement of religious hatred; violators are subject to imprisonment for a term of six to 18 months.[2]

The constitution and law make Catholic education compulsory in public schools, although non-Catholic teachers may teach the course. Students, with parental consent if the student is under the age of 16, may opt out of these classes and instead take an ethics course if one is available. If a school does not offer an ethics course, students may still opt out of the religion class.[2]

Students may enroll in private religious schools. The law does not regulate religious education in private schools. The law does not allow homeschooling for religious or other reasons except for physical or mental infirmity.[2]

In 2017, government advanced plans to introduce the voluntary study of Islamic religious education in an after-school program in a number of state primary- and secondary-level schools, although the government had yet to release a specific timeline for the program's implementation. These plans were motivated by the announced closure of the Mariam Al-Batool Secondary School, which had previously provided Islamic education, due to financial reasons. Discussions are also underway, although not as well developed, to explore similar programs for other religious groups.[2]

Following the announcement of the closure of the Mariam Al-Batool Secondary School, Catholic Archbishop Charles Scicluna announced that Catholic schools would be willing to offer Islam as a subject. This declaration generated public controversy, including protests by the nationalist Moviment Patrijotti Maltin.[2]

In October 2017, the University of Malta released a study conducted under the auspices of the EU-supported C.O.N.T.A.C.T (Creating an Online Network, Monitoring Team and Phone App to Counter Hate Crime Tactics), an anti-hate-speech project. The study, which analyzed online reactions to local news portals and relied on questionnaires and interviews, concluded the most prevalent discriminatory attitudes in the country were against Muslim migrants, particularly those who did not have legal resident status. According to the study, there was a widespread tendency to confound religion with ethnicity, such as categorizing persons as Muslims because of their skin color or Muslims as Africans or Arabs because of their faith. The study also stated incidents of hate speech and hate crime were significantly underreported.[2]

In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.[113]

The constitution of Moldova establishes the freedom of religion, and prohibits all acts of hatred between religious groups, as well as stating that religious organizations have the freedom to operate independently of the state and that it is part of the state's role to support religious institutions in the country. The law also prohibits discrimination based on religious affiliation.[114]

The law stipulates that the state recognize the “exceptional importance and fundamental role” of Orthodox Christianity, particularly that of the Moldovan Orthodox church, in the life, history, and culture of the country.[114]

In 2017, a law was enacted that allows individuals, but not companies or other legal entities, to redirect 2 percent of their income tax to NGOs or religious organizations. Religious groups wanting to benefit from the provisions must register with the Ministry of Justice, and use the amounts received only for social, moral, cultural, and/or charitable activities.[114]

The law bans religious entities from engaging in political activity and prohibits “abusive proselytism,” defined as the action of changing religious beliefs through coercion.[114]

Although the law provides for restitution of property confiscated during the successive Nazi and Soviet periods to politically repressed or exiled persons, the provision does not apply to property confiscated from religious groups. Under previous agreement between the Ministry of Culture and the Moldovan Orthodox Church, the government transferred control of most confiscated churches and monasteries to the Church. Property disputes between the Moldovan Orthodox Church and Bessarabian Orthodox Church have not been resolved. The Ministry of Culture is responsible for the remaining churches and monasteries not under the control of the Moldovan Orthodox Church. Local authorities working through the Ministry of Culture may arrange with local parishes to return or lease those churches or monasteries to religious groups. Property restitution has been an ongoing problem for the Jewish community, and there is no law to address it.[114]

The law provides for exceptions to mandatory military service on the basis of religious objection, with an alternative of civilian service being offered.[114]

The constitution provides for freedom of religious education and stipulates the state educational system “shall be of a lay nature.” According to the law, religion classes in state educational institutions are optional. Religious classes are only available for Christians, with one course designed for Orthodox and Catholic Christians, and another for Protestants.[114]

The authorities grant greater freedom to the Moldovan Orthodox Church, compared to other religious groups, to import religious materials and privileges pertaining to the restitution of church property. In addition, the government grants privileges, such as invitations to officiate at state-sponsored events, national holidays, and blessing ceremonies at schools, to Moldovan Orthodox clergy that it does not grant to other religious groups.[114]

There have been a number of incidents of local governments passing additional restrictions on the freedom of religion, or failing to enforce higher government decisions about property rights for religious institutions. These incidents have affected the Jehovah's Witnesses, Pentecostal groups, Baptists, the Muslim community, and Jewish communities in particular.[114]

The Jewish Community of Moldova has regularly reported that state authorities fail to respond to anti-Semitic acts, including vandalism and hate speech. Community leaders state that police have been reluctant to take action or allowed the perpetrators to escape prosecution.[114]

The Jehovah's Witnesses, Muslim, and Jewish communities have reported instances of vandalism and verbal intimidation on a yearly basis. In 2017, these communities reported 5, 2, and 2 incidents respectively, in addition to other forms of continuous prejudice and discrimination.[114]

Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that in a number of villages, local Orthodox priests instigated hatred and obstructed efforts by the Jehovah's Witnesses to either build new houses of worship or change the designation of premises they purchased.[114]

According to the Islamic League in 2017, societal attitudes toward Muslims have improved over the past few years, but also stated that local media exhibits a critical attitude and bias against Islam, portraying it in a negative light in news articles and broadcasts. The Islamic League also said media outlets described crimes as “terrorist attacks” when a Muslim was involved, while news involving a non-Muslim was reported as a “crime” or “armed attack.” Following one such report, Muslim women were mocked in the streets and called “terrorists.” The Islamic League has also said that Muslims face discrimination when renting housing.[114]

Anti-Semitic discourse and attitudes are present in recurrent comments and news items in some media outlets.[114]

In the separatist region of Transnistria, the laws of the de facto Transnistrian government establish the "special role" of the Orthodox Church, while also recognizing Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, and other religious groups historically present in the region. Officially, all individuals have the freedom to practice their religion. Religious groups are required to register in order to own property and publish literature, and they are monitored by the Ministry of Justice to ensure that they comply with activities and goals described during their registration.[114]

The authorities screen and may ban the import and export of religious printed materials, audio and video recordings, and other religious items. The laws of Transnistria provide for exceptions to mandatory military service on the basis of religious objection, with an alternative of civilian service being offered.[114]

Human rights experts, including representatives from Promo-Lex, have reported that minority religious groups in Transnistria not favored by the Russian Orthodox Church, including Muslims, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baptists, and Pentecostals, are treated unequally as compared to the more “traditional” religious groups. Minority religious groups, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, refrain from requesting registration or from engaging in any other activities due to the history of local authorities refusing to register these groups and preventing them from displaying or distributing religious literature. The Muslim community has said that the Transnistria de facto authorities suggested that it join the Russian Muslim community and stay away from the Moldovan Muslim community. According to minority religious groups, local security forces monitor their activities.[114]

In 2022, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom.[115]

The constitution guarantees individuals the freedom of religion and public worship and protects the freedom to express opinions on all issues, provided no crimes are committed in the exercise of those freedoms. No one may be compelled to participate in the rites or ceremonies of any religion. The constitution states Roman Catholicism is the state religion.[116]

Any religious group wishing to construct a place of worship in a public space must register a request with the Ministry of Interior.[116]

Associations, including religious ones, must request formal recognition from the Ministry of the Interior, which provides a response within one month. Recognized religious groups obtain certain attendant rights and privileges, such as the ability to hire employees and possess property. The government has granted formal recognition to the Protestant and Jewish communities.[116]

Catholic religious instruction is available in schools as an option requiring parental authorization. Private schools may provide religious instruction for religions other than Catholicism, although no schools in Monaco currently do so. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs attributes this to a lack of demand for religious instruction in schools.[116]

Catholic rituals are generally a part of state ceremonies, including annual national day celebrations.[116]

In 2016, Minister of State Serge Telle refused recognition of Monaco's Association of Jehovah's Witnesses.This decision was overruled by a 2017 Supreme Court decision.[116]

There are no mosques in Monaco; the Muslim community in Monaco uses a nearby mosque in Beausoleil, France, less than one kilometer away from Monaco. Muslim residents also worshipped in private prayer rooms inside their own residences.[116]

In 2022, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.[117]

During the existence of the Kingdom of Romania in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the government of Romania systematically favored the Orthodox and Romanian Greek Catholic Churches.[159] Non-Christians were denied citizenship until the late 19th century, and even then faced obstacles and limited rights.[160] Antisemitism was a prominent feature of Liberal political currents in the 19th century, before being abandoned by Liberal parties and adopted by left-wing peasant and later fascist groups in the early 20th century.[161][162] During World War II, several hundred thousand Jews were killed by Romanian or German forces in Romania.[163] Although Jews living in territories belonging to Romania prior to the beginning of the war largely avoided this fate, they nevertheless faced harsh antisemitic laws passed by the Antonescu government.[163] During the Socialist era following World War II, the Romanian government exerted significant control over the Orthodox Church and closely monitored religious activity, as well as promoting atheism among the population.[164] Dissident priests were censured, arrested, deported, and/or defrocked, but the Orthodox Church as a whole acquiesced to the government's demands and received support from it.[165]

In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom.[166]

Parliament has authority to govern the Church of England, but since 1919 has generally delegated this authority to that Church's General Synod (earlier called the Church Assembly). Parliament retains the power to veto measures of the General Synod or Church Assembly; this rarely invoked power was used in 1927 and 1928 to prevent adoption of a revised prayer book. Measures also require royal assent.[209]

The appointment of bishops and archbishops of the Church falls within the royal prerogative. In current practice, the Prime Minister makes the choice from two candidates submitted by a commission of prominent Church members, then passes his choice on to the monarch. The Prime Minister plays this role even though he himself is not required to be a member of the Church of England or even a Christian—for example Clement Attlee was an agnostic who described himself as "incapable of religious feeling".[210] Senior Church of England bishops have a right to sit in the House of Lords, the upper chamber of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

The Church of Scotland is Presbyterian while the Church of England is Anglican (Episcopalian). The former is a national church guaranteed by law to be separate from the state, while the latter is a state-established church, and any major changes to doctrine, liturgy, or structure must have parliamentary approval. Neither Wales nor Northern Ireland currently have established churches: the Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920, the Church of Ireland in 1871. The Act of Settlement 1701 mandates that no Catholic shall be the monarch of the United Kingdom, nor shall they be married to one. The king or queen must promise to uphold the rights of the Presbyterian church in Scotland and the Anglican church in England.[211] He or she is the supreme governor of the Church of England, holding the title of Defender of the Faith, but an ordinary member of the Church of Scotland. Neither church receives direct funding from taxation.

According to a government investigation conducted in 2013, 75% of Sikhs in the UK have experienced discrimination. The Troubles in Northern Ireland included sectarian killings between Catholics and Protestants, but since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 and the St Andrews Agreement in 2006, killings have largely ceased, although sectarian murders are occasionally still reported and tensions linger.[212] Studies conducted in 2017 by the Runnymede Trust and the University of Greenwich found that Muslim prisoners face worse conditions in British jails, alongside Black prisoners.[213] Muslims in the UK are further subject to hate crimes and violence.[214][215] While the Campaign Against Antisemitism has criticized British police for not responding sufficiently to antisemitic crime in 2016,[216] the Pew Research Center and Institute for Jewish Policy Research published reports in 2015 and 2017 finding that the UK has one of the lowest rates of antisemitism in the world.[217][218]

In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.[219]