Body language

Facial expression is a part of body language and the expression of emotion. An accurate interpretation of it relies on interpreting multiple signs in combination – such as the movement of the eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose and cheeks – in order to form an impression of a person's mood and state of mind; it should always be additionally considered in regard to the context in which it is occurring and the person's likely intention.[7]

While facial body language can be interpreted as a sign of genuine emotion, a lack of it may suggest a lack of sincerity. For example, a lack of wrinkles around the eyes may suggest a potentially fake smile. At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. More recently, however, a study conducted by researchers at Northeastern University found that people could convincingly fake a Duchenne smile, even when they were not feeling especially happy.[8]

The action of the pupil corresponds to mood, and it can communicate the mood of a person when it is observed. For instance, the research found that the person has no control over his pupils and they expanded when someone was interested in another person, or when they were looking at something.[9] Normally, one's eyes need to instinctively blink at around 6–10 times per minute, but merely looking at a person or object the viewer finds attractive can slow this rate down.

Studies and behavioral experiments have shown that facial expressions and bodily expressions are congruent in terms of conveying visible signs of a person's emotional state.[10][11] This means that the brain processes the other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.[10] Subjects in these studies judged emotions based on facial expressions with a high level of accuracy. This is because the face and the body are normally seen together in their natural proportions and the emotional signals from the face and body are well integrated.

Nodding off the head is generally considered a sign of saying 'yes'. When used in conversation it may be interpreted as a sign of approval and encourage the speaker to go on. A single nod of the head is a sign of acknowledging another person in a respectful manner. In this manner, it can be regarded as similar to the Asian practice of bowing to a person as a sign of respect. Shaking the head is usually interpreted as meaning 'no'. In India, a head bobble is the tilting of the head from side to side, whose interpretation can be ambiguous and context-dependent.[12]

A tilting of the head to the side can be an expression of interest in what the other person is communicating. It may be a sign of curiosity, uncertainty, or questioning. If the head is propped up by the hand when the head is tilted then this may indicate disinterest or be a sign of thinking about something. A head that is tilted forwards slightly while being pulled backward may indicate being suspicious.[13]

The angle of facing and positioning of a person's head can be indicative of their mood—this should be considered in conjunction with patterns of muscular tension that occur concurrently with it, such as that of the face and neck.[note 1] When the head is tilted up this may demonstrate what some academics refer to as ‘superiority emotions’ such as self-assurance, pride, or contempt.[16] When it is tilted down, this may indicate ‘inferiority emotions’ such as shame, shyness, or respect.[17] When other factors are incorporated, such as the intensity of the feeling or gender, for example, the most accurate interpretation can change. Joy, for instance, is a superior emotion that is typically found in conjunction with a head tilted up. Contentment, which may be considered to be on the same spectrum as joy but at a lesser intensity, may instead feature the head being angled down somewhat.[18]

As a person’s vocal chords are influenced physically by the tilt of their head and the respective pattern of muscle tension, it is possible to discern their head tilt by listening to how they talk.[19]

The Tiff, a painting by Canadian artist Florence Carlyle (c. 1902)

Emotions can also be detected through body postures. Research has shown that body postures are more accurately recognized when an emotion is compared with a different or neutral emotion.[20] For example, a person feeling angry would portray dominance over the other, and their posture would display approach tendencies. Comparing this to a person feeling fearful: they would feel weak, and submissive and their posture would display avoidance tendencies.[20]

Sitting or standing postures also indicate one's emotions. A person sitting still in the back of their chair, leaning forward with their head nodding along with the discussion implies that they are open, relaxed and generally ready to listen. On the other hand, a person who has their legs and arms crossed with the foot kicking slightly implies that they are feeling impatient and emotionally detached from the discussion.[7]

In a standing discussion, a person standing with arms akimbo with feet pointed towards the speaker could suggest that they are attentive and interested in the conversation. However, a small difference in this posture could mean a lot.[7] In Bali standing with arms akimbo is considered rude and may send signals of aggression.[21]

In general terms, the relative fullness or shallowness of the chest, especially around the sternum, can be a key indicator of both mood and attitude. When the body language of the chest is assessed in everyday circumstances, it involves an instinctive assessment of these factors of shape and volume. When the posture of the chest is fuller, and it is positioned relatively forward, then this is a sign of confidence. If it is thrusting prominently forward, then this may be an indication that the person wants to be socially prominent and make a statement of physical confidence. When the chest is pulled back then this can indicate a less confident attitude.

If a person positions their chest closer towards another person it may be a sign of paying closer attention to them as part of a conversation, or, in other circumstances, it may be a sign of physical assertion and aggression.[22]

Gestures are movements made with body parts (example hands, arms, fingers, head, legs) and they may be voluntary or involuntary.[7] Arm gestures can be interpreted in several ways. In a discussion, when one stands, sits or even walks with folded arms, it is normally not a welcoming gesture. It could mean that they have a closed mind and are most likely unwilling to listen to the speaker's viewpoint. Another type of arm gesture also includes an arm crossed over the other, demonstrating insecurity and a lack of confidence.[7] Hand gestures often signify the state of well-being of the person making them. Relaxed hands indicate confidence and self-assurance, while clenched hands may be interpreted as signs of stress or anger. If a person is wringing their hands, this demonstrates nervousness and anxiety.[7]

Finger gestures are also commonly used to exemplify one's speech as well as denote the state of well-being of the person making them. In certain cultures, pointing using one's index finger is deemed acceptable. However, pointing at a person may be viewed as aggressive in other cultures – for example, people who share Hindu beliefs consider finger pointing offensive. Instead, they point with a palm up open hand.[23] Likewise, the thumbs up gesture could show "OK" or "good" in countries like the United States, South Africa, France, Lebanon and Germany. But this same gesture is insulting in other countries like Iran, Bangladesh and Thailand, where it is the equivalent of showing the middle finger in the US.[23]

It is difficult to distinguish a behavior motivated by an out-group bias—a negative response to a member of a different group—from one fueled by stereotype effect—a cognitive association between members of a specific out‐group and a culturally held belief (Hamilton, 1981).[24]

Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and commonly used when meeting, greeting, offering congratulations, expressing camaraderie, or after the completion of an agreement. Studies have categorized several handshake styles, including the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc.[23] Handshakes are popular in the United States and are appropriate for use between men and women. However, in Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing their hands as if praying.

A firm, friendly handshake has long been recommended in the business world as a way to make a good first impression, and the greeting is thought to date to ancient times as a way of showing a stranger you had no weapons.[25]

Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind; because of this, the relationship between body language and breathing is often considered in contexts such as business meetings and presentations.

Oculesics, a subcategory of body language, is the study of eye movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal communication. As a social or behavioral science, oculesics is a form of nonverbal communication focusing on deriving meaning from eye behavior.[26] Oculesics is culturally dependent. For example, in traditional Anglo-Saxon culture, avoiding eye contact usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness.[27] However, in the Latino culture, direct or prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the individual with whom you are speaking or that you have a romantic interest in the person.[27] Also, in many Asian cultures, prolonged eye contact may be a sign of anger or aggression.

Research has also shown that people can accurately decode distinct emotions by merely watching others communicate via touch.[28]

Heslin outlines five haptic categories:[29]

• Functional/professional: This expresses task-orientation. Donald Walton[30] stated in his book that touching is the ultimate expression of closeness or confidence between two people, but not seen often in business or formal relationships. Touching stresses how special the message is that is being sent by the initiator. "If a word of praise is accompanied by a touch on the shoulder, that's the gold star on the ribbon," wrote Walton.[30]
• Social/polite: This expresses ritual interaction. A study by Jones and Yarbrough[31] regarded communication with touch as the most intimate and involving form which helps people to keep good relationships with others. For example, Jones and Yarbrough explained that strategic touching is a series of touching usually with an ulterior or hidden motive thus making them seem to be using touch as a game to get someone to do something for them.[31]
• Friendship/warmth: This expresses idiosyncratic relationship.
• Love/intimacy: This expresses emotional attachment. Public touch can serve as a 'tie sign' that shows others that your partner is "taken".[32] When a couple is holding hands, putting their arms around each other, this is a 'tie sign' showing others that they are together. The use of 'tie signs' are used more often by couples in the dating and courtship stages than between their married counterparts according to Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall.[33]
• Sexual/arousal: This expresses sexual intent.

The amount of touching that occurs within a culture is also culturally dependent.

A chart depicting Edward T. Hall's interpersonal distances of man, showing radius in feet and meters

Another notable area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial relationships, which is also known as proxemics. Introduced by Edward T. Hall in 1966, proxemics is the study of measurable distances between people as they interact with one another.[34] In the book, Body Language,[35] Julius Fast mentioned that the signals that we send or receive to others through body language are reactions to others' invasions of our personal territories.

Hall also came up with four distinct zones in which most people operate:[34]

Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering

Close phase – less than 6 inches (15 cm)

Far phase – 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm)

Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members

Close phase – 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm)

Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 122 cm)

Social distance for interactions among acquaintances

Close phase – 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m)

Far phase – 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m)

Public Distance used for public speaking

Close phase – 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m)

Far phase – 25 feet (7.6 m) or more.

In addition to physical distance, the level of intimacy between conversants can be determined by "socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or the "angle formed by the axis of the conversants' shoulders".[36]

Changing the distance between two people can convey a desire for intimacy, declare a lack of interest, or increase/decrease domination.[37] It can also influence the body language that is used. For example, when people talk they like to face each other. If forced to sit side by side, their body language will try to compensate for this lack of eye-to-eye contact by leaning in shoulder-to-shoulder.[37]

As with other types of body language, proximity range varies with culture. Hall suggested that "physical contact between two people ... can be perfectly correct in one culture, and absolutely taboo in another".[38]

Body language which conveys trust in a business context is done so in a formal manner. This is in keeping with business etiquette in general where people present themselves in a professional and focused manner which also overtly recognises that the relationship has boundaries. A businessperson-like approach signals to another person that they can trust that business will be the main focus of the conversation and not anything else. The handshake is used commonly in business at the start of a meeting or negotiation. It shows that each person is willing to trust the other. It may be accompanied by a warm smile, but it would not usually be accompanied by more familiar, less formal body language such as a broad grin or pat on the shoulder. Business body language specifically attempts to avoid body language that conveys mistrust. For example, if someone crosses their arms or legs while speaking in a business context, it can give the impression of a barrier being presented to the other person. That person may then think that the person speaking does not trust them or is hiding something. Because barrier type body language may signal mistrust, it is avoided in business contexts.[44]

Body language between friends is typically more expressive and informal than body language in business. Trust within a friendship is conveyed in numerous different expressive forms. Like in business a handshake may be used on meeting but this may also involve clasping two hands around one hand or placing a hand on the shoulder etc.[45] Body language which conveys trust between friends may also be significantly more expressive and physical than in business. Giving someone a pat on the back or a hug for example.[46]

People's natural willingness to act openly and warmly with their friends who they know well can appear more genuine when compared with how strangers present themselves as trustworthy in a business context. This is because friends can read each other's body language and facial expressions more easily. This means that they are surer of what the other person means and find it easier to respond accordingly. The interaction is therefore able to be more open and this can be seen when observing friends interact.[47] The communication whether in terms of body language or speech is freer and less constrained by a sense of formal etiquette.

The body language of trust in intimate relationships such as courtship and marriage is very open and often highly personalised, even if it is not necessarily as physically dynamic as that found in a friendship for example. In Western contexts holding hands is a common sign between intimate partners that expresses their affection and trust in each other. It is a gentle act which may extend over several minutes or more. In contrast, a handshake between friends may be quite exuberant and last for a few seconds. Trust is also conveyed in intimate relationships through people caressing and kissing each other. These actions are designed to convey openness and warmth in a highly personalised way. Each partner is communicating to the other that they are attracted to them and also that they trust them and are allowing them to touch them in a more intimate way than would otherwise be acceptable. Such body language may be established gradually over a period of courtship. The body language of intimate relationships cannot be used acceptably in non-intimate relationships.[48]

When people are in an intimate relationship, they often position themselves closer to each other than if they were in a different kind of relationship. Even though it may only be a small distance closer together, an observer can interpret this additional closeness to mean that they are in an intimate relationship. For example, spouses may sit, stand, and walk in each other's intimate space, whereas business colleagues may maintain more of a distance and outside of each other's intimate space. As the spouses are in an intimate relationship, they do not feel the need to maintain the same distance as the business colleagues.[49] Other signs that people who are in an intimate relationship may give include an impression that they feel at ease in each other's company, are committed to each other, and a sense of naturalness.[50]

This is when a person prepares themself for significant physical exertion. For example, before a sportsperson begins to play, they have prepared themself by warming up their body and psychologically focusing on the task ahead. They are thereby in a state of readiness to exert themself. To an observer they appear to be 'pumped up'. Their body language is suggestive that they are about to move quickly and more energetically, they appear physically larger, and their movements are often bigger.

A body language warm up routine consisting of power poses may also be used by people to prepare themselves for a social engagement. Harvard professor Amy Cuddy suggested in 2010 that two minutes of power posing – "standing tall, holding your arms out or toward the sky, or standing like Superman, with your hands on hips" – could increase confidence,[52] but retracted the advice and stopped teaching it after a 2015 study was unable to replicate the effect.[53]

The cultural equivalence model predicts that "individuals should be equally accurate in understanding the emotions of ingroup and outgroup members" (Soto & Levenson, 2009). This model is rooted in Darwin's evolutionary theory, where he noted that both humans and animals share similar postural expressions of emotions such as anger/aggression, happiness, and fear.[55] These similarities support the evolution argument that social animals (including humans) have a natural ability to relay emotional signals with one another, a notion shared by several academics (Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974; Linnankoski, Laakso, Aulanko, & Leinonen, 1994). Where Darwin notes similarity in expression among animals and humans, the Cultural Equivalence Model notes similarity in expression across cultures in humans, even though they may be completely different.

One of the strongest pieces of evidence that supports this model was a study conducted by Paul Ekman and Friesen (1971), where members of a preliterate tribe in Papua New Guinea reliably recognized the facial expressions of individuals from the United States. Culturally isolated and with no exposure to US media, there was no possibility of cross-cultural transmission to the Papuan tribesmen.[56]

On the other hand, the cultural advantage model predicts that individuals of the same race "process the visual characteristics more accurately and efficiently than other-race faces".[57] Other factors that increase accurate interpretation include familiarity with nonverbal accents.[58]

There are numerous studies that support both the cultural equivalence model and the cultural advantage model, but reviewing the literature indicates that there is a general consensus that seven emotions are universally recognized, regardless of cultural background: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, contempt, disgust, and sadness.[59]

Recently, scholars have shown that the expressions of pride and shame are universal. Tracy and Robins (2008) concluded that the expression of pride includes an expanded posture of the body with the head tilted back, with a low-intensity face and a non-Duchenne smile (raising the corner of the mouth). The expression of shame includes the hiding of the face, either by turning it down or covering it with the hands.[56]

The importance of body language in second-language acquisition was inspired by the fact that to successfully learn a language is to achieve discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competencies.[63] Sociolinguistic competence includes understanding the body language that aids the use of a particular language. This is usually also highly culturally influenced. As such, a conscious ability to recognize and even perform this sort of body language is necessary to achieve fluency in a language beyond the discourse level.

The importance of body language to verbal language use is the need to eliminate ambiguity and redundancy in comprehension.[63] Pennycook (1985) suggests to limit the use of non-visual materials to facilitate the teaching of a second language to improve this aspect of communication. He calls this being not just bilingual but also 'bi-kinesic'.[64]

Body language can be a useful aid not only in teaching a second language, but also in other areas. The idea behind using it is as a nonlinguistic input.[65] It can be used to guide, hint, or urge a student towards the right answer. This is usually paired off with other verbal methods of guiding the student, be it through confirmation checks or modified language use. Tai[66] in his 2014 paper provides a list of three main characteristic of body language and how they influence teaching. The features are intuition, communication, and suggestion.

• The intuitive feature of body language used in teaching is the exemplification of the language, especially individual words, through the use of matching body language. For example, when teaching about the word "cry", teachers can imitate a crying person. This enables a deeper impression which is able to lead to greater understanding of the particular word.[66]
• The communicative feature is the ability of body language to create an environment and atmosphere that is able to facilitate effective learning. A holistic environment is more productive for learning and the acquisition for new knowledge.[66]
• The suggestive feature of body language uses body language as a tool to create opportunities for the students to gain additional information about a particular concept or word through pairing it with the body language itself.[66]

Despite the absence of evidence indicating that non-verbal lie detection works, and its rejection by the scholarly community as an effective way to detect lies, law enforcement still relies on it.[67] Numerous Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Law Enforcement Bulletins have addressed body language as a purported tool for "evaluation truthfulness and detecting deception."[68][69]

The body language of the members of law enforcement might influence the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.[70]

The game of poker involves not only an understanding of probability, but also the competence of reading and analyzing the body language of the opponents. A key component of poker is to be able to bluff opponents. To spot bluffing, players must have the ability to spot the individual "tics" of their opponents, known in poker as their "tells". Players also have to look out for signs that an opponent is doing well.

Folding your arms and looking away, in body language, can be interpreted as insecurity. The exaggerated use of the gesture by both characters is used to create a comedic impression.

Body language is often used to achieve a humorous effect in comedy productions. This may involve using body language which is exaggerated, repetitious, inappropriate for the circumstances or for the character, and any combination of these. Two or more characters can be used to emphasise each other’s body language. Their gestures and mannerisms may be very similar, and in this manner amplify their comedic effect. Or they may be very different and thereby highlighted by way of contrast. Comedy double acts standardly use such methods of complementary comedic body language.[71]