1956–1957 exodus and expulsions from Egypt
The 1956–57 exodus and expulsions from Egypt was the exodus and expulsion of Egypt's Mutamassirun, which began during the latter stages of the Suez Crisis in Nasserist Egypt.
Background
The exodus of the Mutamassirun ("Egyptianized"), which included the British and French colonial powers, and also the Jews, Greeks, Italians, Syro-Lebanese and the Armenians, began after World War I.[1] By the end of the 1960s, the exodus of the "foreign population" was effectively complete. According to Andrew Gorman, this was primarily a result of the "decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism".[2][3][4] Following the invasion of Egypt by Britain, France and Israel in 1956, the new president Gamal Abdel Nasser enacted a set of sweeping regulations abolishing civil liberties whilst implenting targeted policies, allowing the state to stage mass arrests and strip away Egyptian citizenship from any group it desired.[5] Some lawyers, engineers, doctors and teachers were no longer allowed to work in their professions.[6] As part of its new policy, 1,000 Jews were arrested and 500 Jewish businesses were seized by the government.[7] Jewish bank accounts were confiscated and many people lost their jobs.[6]
Expulsion
The actions taken to encourage emigration or expel the foreign minorities applied to the whole Mutamassirun population, and after 1956 a large majority of Greeks, Syro-Lebanese, Italians, Belgians, French, and British, including Jews, left the country.[8] The expellees were allowed to take only one suitcase and a small sum of cash, and forced to sign declarations "donating" their property to the Egyptian government.[9]
On 9 December 1956, Egyptian Interior Minister Zakaria Mohieddin stated that of Egypt's 18,000 British and French citizens, 1,452 had been ordered to be expelled.[10]
Jews
| Part of a series on |
| Jewish exodus from the Muslim world |
|---|
 |
| Background |
| Antisemitism in the Arab world |
| Exodus by country |
| Remembrance |
| Related topics |
The decree was also relevant to Egyptian Jews suspected as Zionist agents, especially those with free professions and relatives in Israel.[6] Although there was an indigenous Jewish population, most Jews in Egypt in the early twentieth century were recent immigrants to the country, who did not share the Arabic language and culture.[11] Until the late 1930s, the foreign minorities, including both indigenous and recent immigrant Jews, tended to apply for dual-citizenship in addition to their Egyptian birth citizenship order to benefit from a foreign protection.[12]
Some 23,000—25,000 Jews out of 42,500 in Egypt left,[13] mainly for Israel, Western Europe, the United States, South America and Australia.[14] Many were forced to sign declarations that they were voluntarily emigrating and agreed to the confiscation of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000.[15]
The Guardian correspondent Michael Adams noted in 1958 that the Egyptian government ultimately expelled a minority of the Jewish population of Egypt, though many Jews left as a result of increasing pressure.[16] This is supported by Professor Michael Laskier[17] who claims: "It is estimated that as early as the end of November 1956 at least 500 Egyptian and stateless Jews had been expelled from Egypt". In contrast, Max Elstein Keisler claims that "around 25 000 Jews were expelled that year (1956)",[18] equivalent to all of the Jews who left Egypt in 1956.[17]
In fiction
- Kamal Ruhayyim's novel Days in the Diaspora portrays the life of an exiled family whose mother is an Egyptian Jew.[19]
- André Aciman's memoir Out of Egypt addresses the experience of his family in Alexandria.[20]
- Naguib Mahfouz's novel Miramar takes place in a pension belonging to Mariana, a Greek woman who laments the expulsions' effects on her life and business.[21]
See also
References
- Gorman 2003, p. 174–5.
- Gorman 2003, p. 176 #1: "In the course of the 40 years from the end of the First World War until the early sixties, this considerable mutamassir presence was effectively eliminated, a casualty of the decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism. The relation between these two phenomena was exacerbated by British policy."
- Gorman 2003, p. 176 #2: "During the Second World War, at the insistence of British authorities, adult male Italian citizens were incarcerated as enemy aliens. In 1948, the foundation of Israel made the position of all Jews in Egypt increasingly tenuous, no matter what their nationality, and the position of Greeks was affected by the vicissitudes of the Greek Civil War in the 1940s. Another critical setback came during the Suez crisis in 1956 when all those who held British and French citizenship were deemed enemy aliens and expelled from the country."
- Laskier 1995, p. 573: "The Jews, like other minorities in Egypt—Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Armenians—did not make up a significant percentage of the total population of 19 million in 1948. Yet, like these minorities, they had made important contributions to the economic modernization of the country, particularly since the latter half of the nineteenth century."
- Laskier 1995, p. 579.
- Laskier 1995, p. 581.
- Laskier 1995, p. 579–80.
- Krämer 1989, p. 233: "These developments concerned all local foreign minorities, and after 1956 the large majority of Greeks, Italians, Belgians, French, and British did, indeed, leave the country as well. Non-Muslim and non-Arab minorities had smaller chances to integrate into the Egyptian nation once it came to be increasingly defined on Arab and Islamic lines."
- "The Suez Crisis and the Jews of Egypt". Fathom. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
- Hofstadter, Dan (1973). Egypt & Nasser: 1952–56. Vol. 1. Facts on File. pp. 226–227. ISBN 9780871962034.: "The Egyptian government Nov. 26 issued a statement denying that it had ever planned the mass expulsion of British and French nationals and saying that British and French citizens in Egypt were free to remain or to leave 'at their own discretion'. But Max Koenig, Swiss minister in Egypt, said Dec. 9 that expulsions of individual British and French citizens from Egypt and the sequestration of their property were 'continuing relentlessly' on a large scale. Egyptian Interior Min. Zakaria Mohieddin said Dec. 9 that, of some 18,000 British and French citizens in Egypt, 1,452 had been ordered expelled from the country."
- Krämer 1989, p. 233"Not only were they not Muslim, and mainly not of Egyptian origin; most of them did not share the Arabic language and culture, either. Added to these factors was their political diversity."
- Krämer 1989, p. 31.
- Miccoli, Dario (24 March 2015). Histories of the Jews of Egypt. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315754475. ISBN 978-1-317-62422-6.
- Julius, Lyn. "The Suez Crisis and the Jews of Egypt". Fathom. Fathom. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- Laskier 1995.
- Adams, Michael (1958). Suez and after: year of crisis. Beacon Press. p. 89.: "After various contradictory orders had been given, the Egyptian government only expelled a small minority of the Jewish population of Egypt, though since that time a good many Jews have left Egypt of their own accord."
- Michael M. Laskier (1995). "EGYPTIAN JEWRY UNDER THE NASSER REGIME, 1956-70". Historical Society of Jews from Egypt. Retrieved 14 December 2014.
- Max Elstein Keisler (2013). "Abbas Claims Jews Were Not Expelled From Egypt". The Algemeiner.
- Ruhayyim, Kamal. "Book review: Kamal Ruhayyim's "Diary of a Muslim Jew": An engaging take on a complex theme - Qantara.de". Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World. Quantara.de. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
- "Revisiting André Aciman's Eccentric Family". The New York Times. 13 December 2019. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
- Moussa‐Mahmoud, Fatma (1989). "Depth of vision: The fiction of Naguib Mahfouz". Third World Quarterly. 11 (2): 154–166. doi:10.1080/01436598908420163. ISSN 0143-6597.
Sources and further reading
- Gorman, Anthony (2003). "The Mutamassirun". Historians, State and Politics in Twentieth Century Egypt: Contesting the Nation. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415297530.
- Miccoli, Dario (2015). Histories of the Jews of Egypt An imagined bourgeoisie, 1880s–1950s. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-80205-6.
- Kazamias, Alexander (2009). "The 'Purge of the Greeks' from Nasserite Egypt: Myths and Realities". Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora. 35 (2): 13–34.
- Krämer, Gudrun (1989). The Jews in Modern Egypt, 1914–1952. ISBN 9781850431008.
- Laskier, Michael (1995). "Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70". Middle Eastern Studies. 31 (3): 573–619. doi:10.1080/00263209508701070. JSTOR 4283743. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
