It is difficult to produce small turbines. Pumping fluid from outside is easier, but it is not simple to integrate as many tubings.

Specific solutions are needed: we list some of them below:

Electrokinetic effects

Electrostatics in solution

• Electro-osmosis

• Electro-phoresis

• Dielectrophoresis

Acoustic streaming

• Quartz wind

• Boundary-induced streaming

• Cavitation micro-streaming

Fluid structure interactions

• Soft walls

• Intelligent walls made of a responsive gel